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THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


The  Apollo  Belvedere. 


THE  LAWS  OF 
LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


ALEXANDER    BRYCE 

m.d.(glas.),  d.p.h.(camb,) 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS  DRAWN  FROM  LIFE 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.     B.     LIPPINCOTT     COMPANY 

LONDON:    ANDREW  MELROSE 

19  I  2 


TO 

Emeritus  Professor 
JOHN    OEAY    McKENDEICK 

WHO   FOR  THIRTY  YEARS 

AS   THE   INCUMBENT   OF   THE   CHAIR    OF   PHYSIOLOGY 

IN      GLASGOW      ITNIVERSITY,      WAS      THE      INSPIRING 

TEACHER  OF  ALL  THAT   RELATES  TO   THE 

HEALTH    OF    THE    BODY 

TO    THOUSANDS    OF    MEDICAL    MEN    NOW    SCATTERED 

ALL  OVER  THE  WORLD,  THIS  BOOK  IS   RESPECTFULLY 

AND   BY  PERMISSION 

DEDICATED 

BY   HIS    OLD    PUPIL    AND   ASSISTAJsT 
THE   AUTHOR 


PEEFACE 


THIS  book  is  written  primarily  for  all  who  are 
interested  in  the  preservation  of  health.  It  is  as 
free  from  technical  terms  as  is  possible  in  discussing  a 
scientific  subject,  and  where  such  terms  have  been  found 
necessary  they  have  been  carefully  explained  in  the 
simplest  language  at  my  command. 

At  the  beginning  of  most  of  the  chapters  the 
physiology  of  the  parts  involved  has  been  described  some- 
what minutely.  For  this  reason  I  hope  that  the  volume 
may  commend  itself  likewise  to  teachers  of  personal 
hygiene  and  to  the  student  of  medicine  whether  in 
practice  or  not.  The  subject  of  personal  hygiene  has  not 
yet  been  included  in  the  medical  curriculum,  but  the  public 
is  calling  out  for  information  which  has  been  in  many 
cases  somewhat  inadequately  supplied  by  amateurs.  I 
shall  be  well  repaid  for  the  labour  involved  in  writing 
this  book  should  my  medical  brethren  consider  that  it 
enables  them  to  give  some  authoritative  reply  to  many  of 
the  questions  propounded  by  their  patients, 

Eecently  a  large  number  of  books  of  a  similar 
character  has  emanated  from  members  of  the  medical 
profession,  but  I  make  no  apology  for  adding  to  the  list, 
as  ignorance  of  the  best  means  of  caring  for  the  body  is 
still  widespread.     The  precepts  inculcated  are  in  the  main 


viii  PREFACE 

the  outcome  of  practical  experience,  although  I  have 
doubtless  incorporated  in  the  text  many  facts  obtained  in 
the  course  of  my  reading.  The  following  among  other 
books  have  been  of  much  value  to  me  in  the  preparation 
of  this  volume : — Landois  and  Stirling's  "  Physiology," 
M'Kendriek's  "  Physiology  "  ;  "  Applied  Physiology  " 
(Hutchison);  "The  Body  at  Work"  (Hill);  "The  Care 
of  the  Body  "  (Cavanagh)  ;  "  Further  Advances  in  Physi- 
ology "  (Leonard  Hill) ;  "  Drugs  and  the  Drug  Habit " 
(Sainsbury) ;  "  Health  and  Common  Sense "  (Woods 
Hutchinson)  ;  "  Alcohol  and  the  Human  Body  "  (Horsley 
and  Sturge) ;  "  Personal  Hygiene  "  (Pyle) ;  "  Functional 
Nerve  Diseases  "  (Schofield) ;  "  Ideal  Health  "  ("  M.D.") ; 
"  A  System  of  Physiologic  Therapeutics  "  (Cohen) ;  "  A 
System  of  Practical  Therapeutics "  (Hare) ;  "  Minor 
Maladies "  (Williams) ;  "  Essay  on  the  Prolongation  of 
Life "  (Weber) ;  "  Influence  of  the  Mind  upon  the 
Body  "  (Tuke)  ;  "  Physiological  Economy  in  Nutrition  " 
(Chittenden). 

I  am  especially  indebted  to  Professor  Eussel  H. 
Chittenden  for  revising  Chapter  X.,  and  to  Dr.  J.  T.  Case 
for  revising  Chapter  I. 

ALEXANDER  BRYCE. 

MosELET,  Birmingham. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

Food  (General). 

PAGE 

The  balance  of  the  body — The  alimentary  principles — The  digestive 
organs — The  dissolution  of  the  food — Efficient  mastication — 
The  functions  of  the  stomach,  pancreas,  and  liver — Digestion  in 
the  small  intestine — The  world's  bill  of  fare — The  vegetarian 
controversy — The  needs  of  nutrition — The  indispensable  pro- 
tein— A  specimen  diet — Caloric  calculations — Practical  Sum- 
mary       ........         1 

CHAPTER  II. 

Food  (Special). 

Milk  and  its  properties — Cream,  butter,  and  cheese — Curdled  milk 
and  the  lacto-bacilline  treatment — The  effects  of  eggs — The 
cooked  forms  of  meat — The  truth  about  beef  tea — -Vegetable 
virtues — White  or  brown  bread — Eoots  and  green  foods — Fruits, 
nuts,  and  fungi — Excess  of  salt — The  problem  of  purins — Cases 
for  caution — Personal  peculiarities — The  programme  of  meals — 
The  no -breakfast  plan — Everyday  errors  of  diet — Undesirable 
mixtures — Breakfast — Dinner — Supper — Diet  in  dyspepsia  and 
constipation — Practical  Summary  .  .  .  .40 

CHAPTER  III. 
Drink. 

Liquid  in  the  body — The  needful  allowance — Hot  or  cold  water — 
The  action  of  the  kidneys — Tea-drinking — A  debatable  habit 
— Coffee — The  caffeine  craving — Cocoa  and  other  drinks — The 
use  of  intoxicants — Alcohol  in  health — The  abstainer's  advant- 
age— The  alcoholic  brain  and  will — Drink  heredity — Tobacco — 
Practical  Summary         .  .  .  .  .  .80 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Work. 

PAGE 

The  unresting  body — The  secret  of  the  cell — The  physical  engine — 
Varieties  of  fuel — The  disposition  of  food — The  needful  com- 
bination— Sources  of  obesity — The  cure  of  corpulence — The 
excessively  thin — The  essence  of  health — The  gospel  of  work — 
Age  and  inactivity — Practical  Summary  .  .  .111 

CHAPTER  V. 
Rest. 

The  two  nervous  systems — The  ' '  Grey  matter  "  of  the  brain — The 
seat  of  the  emotions — What  happens  in  sleep — The  collapse  of 
consciousness — First  sleep  the  soundest — Theories  of  slumber— 
The  sleep  required — SI  eeping  at  will — The  war  with  insomnia — 
The  ideal  bedroom — Cures  for  sleeplessness — A  sound  plan — 
Subsidiary  methods — Rest  and  fatigue — Fatigue  an  affair  of  the 
brain — The  nervous  temperament — The  waste  of  energy — The 
features  of  neurasthenia — The  formation  of  the  eye — Errors  of 
refraction — The  cure  of  eye-strain  —  The  child  at  school — 
Troubles  of  the  ear — The  din  of  civilisation — "Noises  in  the 
head  " — Holidays — Practical  Summary  .  .  .  .136 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Air. 

The  greatest  physician  —  The  breathing  apparatus  —  "Vital 
capacity  " — Deep  breathing — The  chance  for  tubercle — Over- 
distension— A  singer's  prescription — Air,  before  and  after — 
The  "  Inner  circle  " — The  sovereign  disinfectant — The  atmo- 
sphere of  cities  —  The  aim  of  ventilation  —  Ways  and  means 
— "Night  air" — Consumption  and  window  space — Climate — 
Mountain  and  sea  air — Devices  for  sleeping  in  the  open  air — 
Practical  Summary        .  .  .  .  .  .184 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Exercise. 

A  national  policy — A  sad  survey — Eecruiting  revelations — The 
human  machine — The  uses  of  the  skeleton — Our  unemployed 


CONTENTS  xi 


muscles — Work  is  not  exercise — The  needs  of  tlie  muscular 
system — The  muscles  and  the  brain — Exercise  and  blood  pres- 
sure— To  fight  deformity — Sins  of  the  schoolroom — A  missing 
link — The  Ling  system — Overdoing  it — Errors  of  athleticism — 
Relaxation — Massage — Osteopathy,  theory  and  practice — A 
percentage  of  truth — Tension  exercises — Modes  of  recreation — 
Plan  for  morning  physical  culture — Practical  Summary  ,     214 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Cleanliness, 

The  ubiquitous  enemy — The  two  skins — The  work  of  the  skin — 
Friction — The  cold  bath  a  blunder — The  hot  bath  at  night — 
A  useful  compromise — The  time  for  sea-bathing — ^The  secret 
of  a  good  complexion — Artificial  aids — A  few  prescriptions — 
Blackheads  and  acne — Red  noses — Blushing  and  its  cure — The 
hair — The  hands  and  nails — The  feet — The  formation  of  the 
teeth — The  toothache  bacillus — The  use  of  the  tooth-brush — 
The  functions  of  the  nose — Handkerchief  reform — The  evils  of 
mouth  breathing — The  eyes — The  ears — Practical  Summary      .     269 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Protection. 

"Warm-blooded"  and  "cold-blooded" — A  misnomer — The  pump 
of  the  system — The  function  of  clothes — The  value  of  loose 
garments — The  importance  of  wool — The  fallacy  of  "  harden- 
ing"— Infants  and  their  clothing — Children  and  "growing 
pains  " — Women  and  the  corset — The  folly  of  men's  hats — The 
treatment  of  baldness — A  source  of  neuralgia — The  weakness  of 
waistcoats — Shirts  and  collars — The  indispensable  overcoat — 
To  harden  the  feet — Boots  and  shoes — High  heels  and  pointed 
toes — The  cure  of  corns — Shoes  better  than  boots — "  Catching 
cold" — A  consequence  of  smoking — Practical  Summary  .     311 

CHAPTER  X. 

Moderation. 

The  centenarian's  secret — Reflex  action — Habit  and  happiness — 
Tyrannous  appetites — The  self-reformer's  programme — Modera- 
tion in  all  things  —  A  remarkable  experiment  —  Professor 
Chittenden's  experimental  ration — An  overlooked  point — Diet 
and  exercise — Practical  Summary  ....     346 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Cheerfulness. 

PAGE 

Mind  and  body — "  Association  of  ideas  " — The  field  of  conscious- 
ness—The physical  effects  of  thought — The  physical  effects  of 
emotion — Phenomena  of  fear- — Worry  distinct  from  anxiety — 
The  ravages  of  worry — The  physical  effects  of  volition — Mental 
therapeutics — Moral  influence  in  medicine — The  value  of  cheer- 
fulness— The  principle  of  "suggestion" — Other  aspects  of 
"suggestion  "  —  Auto-suggestion  and  self-control  —  Practical 
Summary  .......     370 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Re-geneeation. 

The  golden  rule  of  life — Heredity  versus  Environment — Fertility 
of  the  feeble-minded — Caus3  of  diminution  of  the  birth-rate — 
Are  acquired  characters  hereditary  ? — The  influence  of  heredity 
on  tuberculosis — Mendelism — The  inheritance  of  disease — The 
inadvisability  of  first-cousin  marriages — Criminal  character- 
istics— The  science  of  eugenics — Immunity  and  the  laws  of 
health 406 

Index  .  ,  .  .        '   .  c  .         431-445 


ILLUSTRATIO:t^S 

The  Apollo  Belvedere  (The  Type  of  Pekfeot  Man- 
hood)    .......     Frontispiece 

Internal  Organs  of  the  Body  ....  Facing  p.       6 

Devices   for   Sleeping  in   the    Open   Air   and   yet 

RETAINING  THE   SHELTER   OF   THE   HoUSE.      Six  Cuts        ,,    210,  211 

Breathing  Exercise         .  .  .  .  .      ,,  211 

Exercises  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  7  .  .  .  .      ,,  262 

9,  11,   1-3,   14,   15  .  .  .  .       ,,  264 

Two    Diagrams    to    Illustrate    Brain    and    Nerve 

Action  .......,,  371 


IKTRODUCTION 


THE  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  set  forth  in  plain 
language  the  laws  of  health.  This  is  not  so  simple 
as  at  first  sight  it  may  appear,  because,  although  these 
laws  are  as  inviolable  as  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians,  they  are  not  nearly  so  definite :  they  vary 
in  their  application  to  each  individual,  according  to 
temperament,  environment,  and  type  of  constitution. 

Before,  however,  venturing    on    this  task  it  will  be  what  is 
necessary  to  make  an  efibrt  to  define  health  itself,  and  Health  i 
this  is  still  less  easy,  because  no  accurate  definition  of 
health  has  ever  been  formulated. 

Health  is  not  an  absolute,  but  only  a  relative  condition, 
and  it  has  no  necessary  relation  to  strength  of  body.  It 
is  quite  possible  for  a  man  to  be  in  the  best  of  health  and 
yet  to  be  what  is  termed  a  weakling ;  and,  conversely,  it 
is  by  no  means  unusual  to  find  the  most  highly  developed 
specimens  of  humanity  suffering  from  maladies  due  to 
the  straining  of  internal  organs  owing  to  the  excessive 
cultivation  of  muscular  power. 

It  is  seldom,  indeed,  that  one  finds  the  herculean  type 
of  humanity  without  some  discomfort  amounting  to  disease 
— which  is  really  only  "  lack  of  ease," — and  it  is  well  to 
realise  that  after  all  the  healthy  man  is  the  man  who  can 
resist  disease.  In  order  that  the  seeds  of  disease  should 
develop  in  the  human  frame  it  is  quite  as  essential  to 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

prepare  the  soil  as  it  is  in  a  garden ;  and  in  both  cases 
unwelcome  seeds  will  grow  by  neglect  as  freely  as  those 
most  desired.  Health  is  that  condition  of  the  body  which 
prevents  the  growth  of  pathogenic  micro-organisms,  and 
in  its  simplest  aspect  is  exemption  from  disease.  But  as 
this  negative  point  of  view  is  not  as  a  rule  satisfactory  it 
will  be  wise  for  a  moment  to  consider  the  matter  on  its 
positive  side  and  to  inquire  what  are  the  signs  of  health. 
?he  Power  A  healthy  organism  is  one  which  can  adapt  itself — 
f  Adjust-  a^jjjj  go  Qjj  adapting  itself — both  in  structure  and 
function,  to  its  surroundings ;  and  of  all  organised  beings 
man  displays  the  greatest  ability  to  adjust  himself  to  his 
environment.  The  human  family  has  the  power  to 
remain  in  perfect  health  in  the  coldest  of  Arctic  regions 
and  in  the  hottest  of  tropical  zones ;  the  highest  of 
mountains  and  the  lowest  of  valleys  are  compatible  with 
health  within  limits. 

This  implies  that  a  healthy  frame  is  one  which  has  a 
good  construction,  capacity  for  endurance,  self-control 
(not  only  physical  but  mental  and  emotional),  and  ability 
to  resist  all  sorts  of  injurious  influences.  The  actual 
signs,  however,  of  this  condition  are  so  illusory  and  so 
liable  to  misinterpretation  that  it  is  wise  to  fall  back 
upon  a  more  general  definition,  and  probably  the  best  is, 
that  health  is  the  harmonious  adaptation  of  the  body  to 
its  environment. 

This  fulfils  every  requirement,  and  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Spencerian  doctrine  that  life  is  the  continual 
adjustment  of  inner  relations  to  outer  relations.  Health 
and  disease  are  different  aspects  of  the  same  body, 
definite  results  flowing  from  definite  conduct,  just  as 
good  and  evil  in  the  moral  world  have  the  same  physical 
substratum  and  one  or  the  other  will  arise  according  to 
the  actions  of  the  individual. 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

It  will  be  obvious  from  this  description  that  the  laws  The  Laws 
of  health  are  by  no  means  stereotyped,  but  are  simply  °^  Nature. 
principles  of  action  for  the  guidance  of  the  individual. 
Huxley  said  that  "  the  laws  of  Nature  "  were  not  causes 
but  simply  a  name  for  an  observed  succession  of  facts,  and 
so  the  laws  of  health  may  be  said  to  be  rules  of  action 
governing  our  conduct,  deduced  from  the  experience  of 
centuries,  attention  to  which  brings  about  such  a  condition 
of  body  as  will  enable  us  in  comfort  and  happiness  to 
pursue  our  business  and  social  demands  for  the  longest 
possible  period  of  time. 

Manifestly,  disease  of  all  kinds  and  of  every  degree  of 
severity  must  have  been  due  in  its  initial  stages  to 
violations  of  the  laws  of  health  by  the  victim  of  the 
disease  or  his  immediate  or  remote  ancestors ;  and  so 
long  as  the  violation  of  the  law  continues  there  can  be 
no  hope  of  remedial  measures  having  anything  but  a 
temporary  value.  Nature  takes  no  account  of  the  fact 
that  we  have  not  been  aware  of  the  laws  which  we  have 
broken.  So  soon,  however,  as  the  deviation  from  the  paths 
of  physiological  rectitude  ceases,  the  vis  medicatrix  naturce 
begins  its  healing  effect.  Disease,  indeed,  is  Nature's 
process  for  the  elimination  of  those  who  are  mentally  or 
physically  unable  or  unwilling  to  obey  her  voice,  and  in 
this  rude  way  she  purges  the  race  of  the  unfit  and 
strengthens  the  species  by  making  the  fittest  survive. 

Health  is  Nature's  reward  for  getting  into  harmony  with 
her  laws,  and  thus  it  is  only  necessary  to  put  one's  self 
into  line  with  Nature  to  reap  all  the  advantages  of  her 
undoubtedly  beneficent  designs. 

As  nature,  however,  does  not  lay  herself  out  specifically  The  True 
to  teach  her  laws,  but  leaves  us  to  find  them  out  for  our-  '^^^^  °f 

11  T     1  •    p   1  1  Medicine. 

selves  by  a  peculiarly  pamtul  process,  and  as  we  may 
fail    to    learn  them  effectually  before  much  irreparable 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

damage  has  been  wrought  in  our  bodies,  it  is  of  prime 
importance  that  they  should  be  classified  and  rendered 
easy  of  access  to  all  who  are  interested  in  conserving  their 
health. 

I  hope  that  this  attempt  to  codify  these  laws  may,  by 
its  comparative  fulness  and  practical  illustration  of  the 
facts  of  physiology,  appeal  to  the  student  of  medicine, 
besides  serving,  by  reason  of  its  simple  language  and  lack 
of  abstruse  terminology,  as  a  guide  to  the  public  in  all 
questions  of  personal  health.  Sir  Eupert  Boyce,  the  well- 
known  leader  of  the  scientific  investigation  of  tropical 
diseases,  declared  himself  the  other  day  an  enthusiastic 
believer  in  the  ability  of  a  nation  in  whatever  clime  to  keep 
itself  free  from  disease  by  fulfilling  the  two  following 
conditions : — 

(1)  That  the  teachings  and  directions  of  the  expert,  the 
man  of  science,  should  be  implicitly  obeyed  and  carried 
out. 

(2)  That  the  community  individually  and  collectively 
should  organise  and  co-operate  to  fight  disease. 

These  words  were  meant  to  apply  specially  to  in- 
fectious disease,  but  they  may  usefully  be  extended  to  the 
consideration  of  disease  in  general,  and,  as  "  Prevention  is 
ever  better  than  cure,"  to  that  still  higher  ideal,  the 
maintenance  of  health. 

In  presenting  the  following  decalogue  of  health,  which 
is  more  than  a  compendium  of  the  best  features  of  the 
work  of  many  predecessors,  I  hope  that  I  have  combined 
reasonable  brevity  with  definiteness  and  accuracy  of 
statement,  both  so  essential  in  the  treatment  of  such  a 
subject. 

A  thoughtful  perusal  of  the  book  and  the  careful 
practice  of  its  precepts  must  be  followed  by  an  improve- 
ment in  the  health  of  even  the  most  weakly.     An  aged 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

Scot  told  his  minister  that  he  was  about  to  make  a  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Holy  Land.  "  And  when  I'm  there,"  said  the 
pilgrim  complacently,  "  I'll  read  the  Ten  Commandments 
aloud  frae  the  tap  o'  Mount  Sinai."  The  minister  looked 
at  him  with  an  eye  of  pity,  and  said,  "  Sandy,  tak'  my 
advice :  Bide  at  hame  and  keep  them." 

The  hint  conveyed  in  this  little  anecdote  is  worthy  of 
being  taken  to  heart  by  all  who  read  this  volume. 


THE    LAWS    OF    LIFE 
AND    HEALTH 


CHAPTEE   I. 

FOOD    (GENERAL). 

LAW  I. — "Eat  three  meals  each  day  of  plain,  whole" 
some,  solid,  nourishing  food,  at  or  about  the 
same  time  as  far  as  possible," 

ASUCCIjSTCT  and  comprehensive  definition  of  food  is  The 
not  possible,  but  the  following  probably  fulfils  all  ^h^lTody! 
requirements :  "  Any  substance  which,  when  introduced 
into  the  living  organism,  will  build  up  and  repair  the 
waste  of  its  tissues,  and  furnish  it  with  heat  and  energy." 
Perhaps  it  might  be  wise  to  add  that  this  should  be 
accomplished  without  causing  injury  to  any  of  its  parts, 
or  loss  of  functional  activity.  The  difficulty  experienced 
in  constructing  such  a  definition  is  in  some  degree  a 
measure  of  the  controversy  which  has  raged,  and  still 
rages,  round  the  subject. 

The    human    body    contains    the    following    chemical 
elements : — nitrogen,  oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  sulphur, 


2  THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

phosphorus,  chlorine,  iodine,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  iron.  These  are  constantly  present  in  the 
body,  and  there  are  occasionally  some  others.  It  is 
evident  that,  for  the  growth  of  the  body  and  the  repair 
of  its  wasting,  all  these  elements  must  be  supplied  in 
the  shape  of  food. 

Human  beings,  however,  cannot  feed  upon  chemical 
elements,  and  so  they  have  to  fall  back  upon  organic 
substances  containing  them.  The  origin  of  these  organic 
substances  is  of  great  interest.  The  ultimate  non-vital 
chemical  elements  and  their  compounds  which  reside  in 
the  air  and  in  the  soil  are  absorbed  by  plants,  which 
elaborate  them  into  vital  organised  tissues.  These,  as 
cereals,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  are  now  capable  of  being 
converted  into  food  by  animals  and  human  beings. 
The  flesh  of  animals  which  live  upon  such  plants, 
being  well  flavoured,  is  eaten  by  man,  and  is  really  a 
short  cut  to  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  plants — at 
least  to  the  protein  nutriment.  All  organised  life — 
plants,  animals,  and  man — ultimately  loses  its  vitality 
and  is  converted  anew  into  its  constituent  non-vital 
elements. 

It  is  found  by  experience  that  all  food  necessary  for 
man  may  be  grouped  under  five  heads  or  proximate 
alimentary  principles. 

(1)  Proteins. — These  form  an  essential  part  of  all 
muscles,  nerves,  glands,  and  indeed  all  living  cells.  The 
most  ready  form,  therefore,  in  which  they  may  be 
obtained  is  the  flesh,  i.e.  the  muscular  portions,  of  a  dead 
animal,  although  they  exist  as  gluten  of  wheat,  casein 
of  milk  and  cheese,  legumin  of  peas,  beans,  lentils,  and 
albumin  of  eggs  and  nuts.  In  whatever  form  they  exist, 
however,  they  have  practically  an  identical  composition, 
and   within   certain    limits   can   replace  each    other    in 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  3 

nutrition.  They  are  almost  entirely  absent  from 
fruits,  and  present  only  in  minute  proportions  in  vege- 
tables. 

The  essential  element  in  this  division  is  nitrogen, 
which  is  to  be  found  in  none  of  the  other  alimentary 
principles.  Gelatine,  which  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  nitrogen,  is  allied  to  proteins,  but  cannot  fulfil  the 
same  functions.  It  prevents,  however,  the  rapid  burn- 
ing-up  of  protein,  and  on  that  account  is  termed  a 
"  protein-sparer."  The  functions  of  this  class  of  nutrients 
are :  (1)  To  repair  and  maintain  the  tissues  and  secre- 
tions of  the  body ;  (2)  to  stimulate  functional  activity ; 
(3)  in  some  small  measure  to  furnish  heat  and  energy 
or  the  laying  down  of  fat,  since  they  can  be  split  up 
into  a  nitrogenous  and  a  non-nitrogenous  portion. 

(2)  Fats  or  Hydrocarbons.— The^Q  comprise  the 
various  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  oils  and  wax.  They 
are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  vary 
in  their  physical  state,  their  digestibility,  and  hence  in 
their  value  as  foods.  Hot  mutton  fat  is  perhaps  the 
least  digestible,  just  as  butter,  especially  when  spread  on 
bread,  is  the  most  digestible.  Fats  abound  in  certain 
foods,  e.g.  nuts,  the  olive,  the  pea-nut,  and  the  soya  bean 
of  Japan.  Maize  contains  5  per  cent.,  and  oats  about 
7 1  per  cent,  of  fat.  Animal  foods  of  all  kinds  contain 
a  proportion  of  it,  e.g.  milk  and  butter,  cream  and  cheese, 
yolk  of  eggs,  bacon,  cod  liver  oil,  etc. 

Fats  act  (1)  as  protein  sparers,  (2)  as  a  source  of  heat 
and  energy,  (3)  by  being  deposited  as  adipose  tissue,  they 
act  as  reserve  stores  of  force-producing  and  heat-generat- 
ing material. 

(3)  Starchy  and  Sugary  Substances. — These  are 
grouped  under  the  general  term  of  carbohydrates.  They 
are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  last 


4  THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

two  being  always  present  in  the  same  proportions  as 
they  are  in  water.  They  are  the  most  abundant  of  the 
food  elements,  and  comprise  four  groups : — 

(1)  Starches. — These  are  found  in  grains  and  seeds 

and  nearly  all  vegetable  substances.  Starch 
is  also  found  in  green,  but  not  in  ripe,  fruit, 
and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  is  not  found  in 
nuts.  More  than  half  the  weight  of  most 
grains  consists  of  starch,  and  it  is  possible 
to  tell  the  source  of  starch  granules  from 
their  particular  shape. 

(2)  Sugars. — These  may  be  (a)  cane  sugars  found 

in  the  sugar  cane ;  (6)  Isevulose,  or  fruit 
sugar ;  (c)  glucose,  prepared  by  heating 
starch  with  sulphuric  acid — a  most  in- 
efficient substitute  for  vegetable  sugars ;  {d) 
lactose  or  milk  sugar ;  (e)  maltose  or  malt 
sugar. 

(3)  Dextrin. — This  is  practically  soluble  starch. 

(4)  Cellulose. — Insoluble    and,   for   the   most   part, 

indigestible  starch. 
Starch  is  converted  into  dextrin  by  cooking,  and  this 
again  by  the  saliva  into  maltose.  Uncooked  starch 
cannot  be  acted  upon  by  the  saliva,  but  passes  into  the 
stomach,  where  it  interferes  with  the  process  of  gastric 
digestion.  It  is  only  digested  when  it  reaches  the  pan- 
creatic fluid  in  the  small  intestine. 

Carbohydrates  are  rapidly  burned  up  in  the  tissues, 
and  rapidly  produce  heat  and  energy. 

(4)  Mineral    Substances   or    Salts. — These   are 
chiefly : — 

(1)  Phosphates,  chlorides  and  carbonates  of  lime, 
sodium  and  potassium,  which  exist  in  most 
of  the  commonly  eaten  foods. 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  5 

(2)  Tartrates,  citrates,  and  malates,  to  be  found  in 

fruits  and  easily  convertible  into  carbonates 
in  the  body. 

(3)  Iron,  in  prunes,  yolk  of  eggs,  meat,  spinach,  etc. 
(5)    Water. — This    constitutes     three-fifths     of    the 

body,  for   not    only   are   the   cells   composed   chiefly   of 
water,  but  they  are  surrounded  by  it  more  or  less  freely. 

These  five  alimentary  principles  are  to  be  found  in  Influences 
the  food  of  every  individual  in  the  world,  however  the  °^  ''*• 
component  parts  of  his  diet  may  vary  in  form  and 
appearance,  and  even  the  proportions  in  which  they  are 
consumed  agree  to  a  large  extent  in  the  most  diverse 
dietaries.  This  statement  requires  modification  so  far  as 
the  arctic  and  torrid  zones  are  concerned,  for  in  the  former 
a  larger  proportion  of  fat  and  protein  and  in  the  latter 
a  preponderance  of  carbohydrate  material  is  consumed. 

Quite  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  globe 
subsist  on  a  vegetarian,  or  what  is  commonly  called  a 
fleshless  diet,  and  a  nation  is  committed  to  a  particular 
style  of  food,  not  so  much  .from  the  point  of  view  of 
nutrition  as  from  religious  or  social  motives  or  climatic 
necessity.  Most  people  find  their  dietetic  habits  settled 
for  them  before  they  arrive  at  the  reflective  period  of 
life,  and  many  emulate  the  old  gentleman  whose  rule 
of  life  was,  to  eat  and  drink  what  he  most  fancied  and 
then  go  to  bed  and  "  leave  them  to  fight  it  out  as  best 
they  could  amongst  themselves."  Doubtless,  tempera- 
ment has  much  to  do  with  the  food  we  eat,  and 
idiosyncrasy  plays  a  greater  part  than  one  would 
imagine. 

Too  much  thinking  of  an  analytical  kind  about  food 
is  probably  dangerous  for  most  of  us,  and  perhaps  this  is 
the  tendency  nowadays  when  so  much  hygiene  is  being 
taught.     Exact   information  on  such  a  subject  is  most 


6  THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

essential,  in  order  that  erroneous  ideas  may  be  dispelled. 
Sir  Andrew  Clarke  used  to  tell  the  story  of  an  old  lady 
who  brought  her  daughter  to  consult  him.  She  was 
suffering  from  anaemia  and  gastric  ulcer,  and  he  pre- 
scribed claret  amongst  other  things.  Six  weeks  later 
she  returned  looking  plump  and  rosy-cheeked.  Sir 
Andrew  said,  "  She  is  much  better.  I  am  glad  she  has 
followed  my  instructions."  "  Oh  yes,"  said  the  mother, 
"  I  gave  her  plenty  of  them.  We  boiled  them,  stewed_ 
them,  mashed  them,  and  gave  them  with  all  her  food, 
till  the  house  smelt  of  nothing  but  carrots."  Happily 
no  harm  resulted,  but  the  victims  of  misconception  may 
not  always  be  so  fortunate. 

The  Organs  of  Digestion  consist  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  salivary  glands,  pancreas,  and  liver.  In  the 
chapter  on  "  Cleanliness,"  details  are  given  of  the  teeth, 
of  which  there  are,  or  should  be,  thirty-two. 

There  are  three  salivary  glands  on  either  side.  The 
largest  is  the  parotid,  just  in  front  of  the  ear,  and  is 
familiar  as  being  usually  enlarged  in  the  disease  called 
"  mumps."  Its  duct  pierces  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  cheek  opposite  the  second  molar  tooth  of  the 
upper  jaw.  The  submaxillary  and  sublingual  salivary 
glands  have  a  common  duct,  which  enters  the  mouth 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
tongue. 

The  roof  of  the  mouth  ends  behind  in  the  soft  palate, 
which  splits  into  two  folds  with  the  tonsil — which 
should  not  be  seen,  unless  enlarged  or  inflamed — between 
them.  After  passing  the  posterior  folds  or  "  pillars  of  the 
fauces  "  just  mentioned,  we  enter  the  pharynx  or  throat. 
It  hangs  as  a  bag  from  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  is  4^- 
inches  long,  being  enclosed  by  three  thin  muscles  which 
overlap  from  below  upwards.      Above  the    soft    palate, 


Hyoio     & 


Lept  Lost   OF    Lw£.R 
Rc-nr    LogE.    of  L-lvEi 
RiQHT   KiUNEY 


Diagram  of  the  Internal  Organs  of  the  Body.— The  anterior 
half  of  the  diaphragm  has  been  cut  away  and  the  front  portions 
of  the  upper  ten  ribs  removed.  The  dotted  lines  signify  deeply 
placed  organs. 


8  THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

side  under  the  spleen,  then  passes  down  the  left  side  to 
the  rectum.  The  lowest  part  of  the  ascending  colon  is 
termed  the  ctecum,  and  from  it  passes  the  remains  of 
a  much  larger  piece  of  bowel,  which  in  process  of 
evolution  has  become  atrophied  till  it  is  only  3  J  inches 
long.  This  is  the  notorious  vermiform  appendix.  The 
colon  is  about  3  inches  wide,  but  becomes  much  narrower 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  descending  part  or  sigmoid  flexure, 
which  terminates  in  the  rectum. 

The  chief  object  of  this  lengthened  tube  from  the 
mouth  downwards  is  that  the  food  may  be  digested  or 
prepared  for  absorption  into  the  blood.  With  the 
exception  of  water,  all  the  alimentary  principles  are 
insoluble  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and  the  process  of 
digestion  is  simply  an  extremely  elaborate  method  of 
dissolving  them.  This  is  accomplished  by  various 
secretions  poured  forth  at  definite  points  in  the  ali- 
mentary canal. 

The  first  of  these  fluids,  and  probably  the  most 
important,  because  it  is  the  only  one  under  our  direct 
control,  is  the  saliva,  the  combined  product  of  the  three 
pairs  of  salivary  glands.  It  is  a  thin  watery  alkaline 
solittion,  containing  only  ^  per  cent,  of  solid  substance — 
mainly  mucin,  ptyalin,  and  certain  salts,  of  which  the 
chief  are  phosphate  and  chloride  of  sodium.  It  has 
three  definite  functions :  (1)  mechanical,  to  moisten 
the  dry  food;  (2)  chemical,  to  digest  cooked  starch; 
(3)  to  keep  the  mouth  and  tongue  moist  enough  to 
facilitate  articulate  speech.  If  a  little  warm  starch 
mucilage,  e.g.  boiled  arrowroot,  be  divided  into  two 
portions,  one  of  which  is  held  in  the  mouth  for  about 
half  a  minute  and  then  tested  by  adding  iodine  water, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  portion  which  has  been  held 
in  the  mouth  fails  to  turn  blue,  showing  that   it  now 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  9 

contains  no  starch.  The  ptyalin  in  the  saliva  has 
converted  the  starch  into  dextrin  and  maltose,  the  same 
form  of  sugar  as  appears  during  the  malting  of  barley. 
The  action  is  much  retarded  by  acids,  and  hence  acid 
wines  should  not  be  taken  with  starchy  foods.  Tannin 
likewise  prevents  the  change,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
frequent  dyspepsia  experienced  after  tea  and  cake  or 
bread  and  butter. 

We  know  how  the  mere  sight  or  smell  or  even  thought 
of  savoury  food  causes  our  mouths  to  water,  and  this 
demonstrates  the  psychical  influence  over  the  secretion. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  amount  of  the  secretion 
from  the  various  glands  varies  greatly  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  food.  Thus  very  dry,  acid,  irritating 
substances,  or  a  mouthful  of  sand  will  provoke  an 
intense  •  flow  of  watery  saliva,  Nature's  response  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  mouth  and  clear  out,  if  necessary, 
the  intrusive  material.  When  meat  is  offered  to  a  dog, 
an  abundant  flow  of  saliva  comes  from  the  gland  under 
the  jaw ;  when  it  is  offered  bread,  thin  parotid  saliva 
is  secreted.  The  moment  the  animal  realises  that  it  is 
being  cheated,  i.e.  the  food  first  offered  being  withdrawn, 
the  flow  at  once  ceases.  The  chief  flow  takes  place  when 
agreeable  food  is  carefully  masticated,  and  the  process 
of  conversion  of  the  starch  into  sugar  goes  on  in  the 
stomach  for  half  an  hour  after  it  is  swallowed.  If 
mastication  of  food  be  confined  to  one  side  of  the  mouth, 
three  times  as  much  saliva  is  secreted  on  that  side  than 
on  the  other. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  saliva  is  secreted  under  two 
impulses :  (1)  mental  stimulus,  (2)  local  stimulus,  caused 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  food  in  the  mouth  under  the 
influence  of  effective  mastication.  It  will  be  subsequently 
pointed  out  that  gastric  juice  is  secreted  in  precisely  the 


lo        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

same  way,  there  being  a  short  initial  flow  caused  by  the 
thought,  sight,  and  smell  of  food,  and  a  much  longer  and 
more  continuous  flow  induced  by  the  presence  of  food 
in  the  stomach.  But  not  all  foods  excite  this  latter 
flow,  e.g.  white  of  egg,  starch,  or  bread  does  not  cause  it, 
nor  does  irritation  with  the  finger,  or  a  foreign  body  like 
sand.  On  the  other  hand,  the  production  of  salivary 
digestion  has  a  great  influence  in  calling  forth  this 
secretion  of  gastric  juice,  and  hence  mastication  and 
insahvation  have  an  immensely  beneficial  influence  on 
the  whole  process  of  digestion. 

This  fact  has  been  put  to  the  test  of  experience  by 
Mr.  Horace  Fletcher,  an  American  layman  of  independent 
means.  Some  six  or  seven  years  ago,  being  the  victim 
of  severe  indigestion  and  obesity  sufficiently  great  to 
interfere  with  his  comfort,  and  to  cause  him  to  be 
refused  for  life  assurance,  he  instituted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments upon  specially  prolonged  mastication,  with  the 
most  remarkable  results.  In  the  first  place,  he  lost  his 
dyspepsia  and  excess  of  fat,  and  increased  his  health  and 
strength  in  a  notable  degree.  In  the  second  place,  he 
found  that  the  amount  of  food  which  he  consumed  was 
enormously  lessened,  being  hardly  one-half  of  what  he 
previously  consumed,  and  in  particular  that  his  protein 
food  was  reduced  to  nearly  one-third  of  the  amount 
which  had  been  held  to  be  the  minimum.  To  put  the 
matter  beyond  the  region  of  doubt,  he  wilHngly  sub- 
mitted himself  to  the  careful  observation  of  the  late 
Professor  Michael  Foster,  at  Cambridge,  who  fully  verified 
the  results.  Subsequently,  Professor  Chittenden  of  Yale 
subjected  him  to  further  tests,  both  in  nutrition  and 
muscular  strength,  with  a  like  result.  For  quite  seven 
years  now  Mr.  Fletcher  has  continued  his  practice, 
and    after    the    initial    loss   of    excessive    fat  his    body 


FOOD  (GExNERAL)  ii 

weight    has    remained   unaltered   and   his   strength    has 
increased. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  good  effects  of  the 
extremely  careful  mastication  practised  by  Mr.  Fletcher, 
which  may  be  explained  as  much  by  the  diminished  loss 
of  energy  in  digestion  and  excretion  as  by  the  perfect 
utilisation  of  the  ingested  food.  The  late  Sir  Andrew 
Clarke  used  to  say  that,  as  there  were  thirty-two  teeth, 
thirty-two  bites  should  be  given  to  each  mouthful  before 
swallowing  it ;  but  Mr.  Fletcher  does  not  limit  his 
number  to  this,  but  goes  on  chewing  until  all  the  taste 
has  been  extracted  from  his  food,  and  then  rejects 
the  fibrous,  insoluble,  and  tasteless  remainder  before 
swallowing.  It  is  not  every  one  who  could  or  would 
persevere  in  what  may  be  looked  upon,  from  the  social 
point  of  view  at  all  events,  as  a  most  inconvenient 
practice,  especially  when  one  considers  that  soups,  milk, 
wines,  water,  and  indeed  all  other  liquids  are  submitted 
to  the  same  process  and  test  before  swallowing. 

Thorough  mastication  is  of    infinite    value,  not  only  The  Im- 
because  it  brings  about  complete  subdivision  of  the  food  P°^*j^"^.^ 
into  particles  minute  enough  to  be  easily  dissolved  by  cation, 
the  various  digestive  fluids,  but  because  it  is  now  con- 
ceded that  the  greater  the  amount    of    effective  saliva 
which  is  secreted,  the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of 
gastric  juice.      It  is  further  known  that  the  larger  the 
quantity  of  gastric  juice  the  greater  will  be  the  quantity 
of  pancreatic  fluid,  bile  and  intestinal  secretions.      Effec- 
tive mastication  and  insalivation,  therefore,  are  responsible 
for   the  completeness  of  digestion  all    through  the  ali- 
mentary tract,  and,  as    they  are  completely  under  the 
control,  the  victim  of  dyspepsia  who  knows  of  this  fact 
must  blame  no  one  but  himself  for  the  persistence  of 
his  sufferings. 


12        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

In  recent  years  many  other  experiments  confirming 
those  of  Mr.  Fletcher  have  been  conducted.  At  Yale 
University,  four  years  ago,  a  band  of  nine  students 
undertook  an  experiment  to  test  the  virtues  of  thorough 
mastication  without  extending  it  so  far  as  to  reject  any 
of  the  insoluble  or  tasteless  residue.  The  rules  which 
the  men  followed  were  two  : — 

(1)  To  masticate  thoroughly  every  morsel  of  food, 

with  the  attention  concentrated  upon  its 
taste  and  enjoyment  and  not  upon  the 
mastication  itself. 

(2)  To  follow  absolutely  and  implicitly  the  dictates 

of  the  appetite  both  as  to  the  amount  and 
kinds  of  food  chosen. 

The  experiment  lasted  five  months,  and  during  this 
period  the  men  almost  doubled  their  physical  endurance 
as  shown  by  tests  made  in  the  gymnasium.  At  the 
same  time,  they  adopted  unconsciously  a  simpler  diet, 
with  a  greatly  diminished  proportion  of  meat  and  eggs. 
In  this  and  subsequent  experiments  at  Yale  and  Brussels 
it  was  found  that  the  closer  the  approach  was  made  to 
vegetarianism,  the  greater  was  the  endurance ;  whilst, 
without  having  any  more  strength,  the  vegetarians  had 
by  far  the  greatest  endurance  of  all. 

There  are  probably  many  factors  to  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  the  interpretation  of  these  noteworthy 
results,  but  my  sole  object  in  giving  them  such 
prominence  is  to  emphasise  the  vast  importance  of 
mastication.  There  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that 
insufficient  mastication  in  the  young  is  a  great  factor 
in  the  causation  of  mouth,  throat,  and  nose  disease, 
whilst  early  decay  of  the  teeth  is  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  same  cause. 

The  saliva  remains  active  in  the  stomach  for  thirty 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  13 

or  forty  minutes — until,  indeed,  the  gastric  juice  has 
been  secreted  in  sufficient  quantity  to  render  the 
stomach  contents  acid.  All  acids  have  a  tendency  to 
destroy  the  action  of  the  saliva,  some  of  them  even  in 
such  a  small  proportion  as  one  part  in  six  thousand. 
It  is  therefore  unwise  to  take  vinegar  with  starchy 
foods,  or  to  eat  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  sour  apples,  and 
even  grapes  at  the  same  meal  as  bread,  cake,  and 
pudding.  Fats,  when  mingled  with  starch  in  the  form 
of  oils,  also  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  saliva, 
hence  muffins,  hot  buttered  toast,  and  pikelets  are  most 
indigestible. 

Swallowing  is  not  the  instantaneous  process  it  appears 
to  be,  although  fluids  and  well  masticated  solids  pass 
down  the  oesophagus  with  great  rapidity.  A  "lightning 
lunch  "  is  almost  sure  to  be  followed  by  some  discomfort 
or  pressure  in  the  chest,  because  the  insufficiently 
chewed  lumps  of  food  travel  slowly  down  and  make 
a  momentary  stoppage  at  the  inlet  of  the  stomach. 
Even  fluids  halt  here  for  a  little,  and  their  trickling 
into  the  midst  of  the  stomach  contents  may  often  be 
heard. 

Valuable  as  the  stomach  may  be  to  its  possessor,  it  The 
is  by  no  means  an   absolute   necessity,  as  it  has   been  of'^i^f  "^'^ 
frequently   excised   without    apparently   much   harm    to  Stomach, 
the  welfare  of  the  body.     It  is,  however,  by  no  means 
superfluous,  as  it  subserves  several  important  functions. 
It  warms  or  cools  the  food,  sterilises  it  and  prepares  it 
for  propulsion  into  the  bowel,  by  dissolving  its  protein 
contents.     This  it  does  chiefly  by  the  secretion  of  the 
gastric  juice,  w^hich  is   a   highly  acid   fluid   due  to  the 
presence  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  contains  two  ferments, 
pepsin  and  rennin.     The  former  dissolves  proteins  (and 
in  this  respect  the  gastric  juice  is  so  powerful  that  it 


14        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

has    been    said    that   it   can    digest   its   own   weight   of 
coagulated  egg),  the  latter  curdles  milk. 

From  eight  to  nine  or  more  pints  of  gastric  juice  are 
secreted  in  a  day,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  stomach 
is  expected  to  deal  with  two  pints  of  saliva  and  any 
beverage  which  may  be  swallowed  by  its  owner.  Before 
even  the  food  reaches  the  stomach,  gastric  juice  begins 
to  pour  into  it — proving  that  it  does  not  require  to  be 
provoked  by  mechanical  stimulation,  such  as  the  contact 
of  food.  Irritation  of  the  lining  membrane  by  the 
finger  or  a  foreign  body  is  certainly  followed  by  a 
secretion,  but  it  is  simply  that  of  alkaline  mucus  to 
protect  the  delicate  surface. 

The  mere  sight  or  smell  of  food  and  its  pleasant 
flavour  in  the  mouth  suffice  to  induce  an  outflow  of 
gastric  juice  into  the  empty  stomach,  and  this  is  the 
psychic  or  "  appetite "  juice  associated  with  the  name 
of  Pawlow.  The  mere  mechanical  act  of  chewing,  or 
the  chewing  of  an  indifferent  substance  like  indiarubber, 
is  not  followed  by  a  flow  of  "  appetite "  juice.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  some  agreeable  food  or  the  anticipation 
of  it.  Hence  the  importance  of  preserving  the  amenities 
of  the  dining-hour,  providing  agreeable  company  and 
thoughts,  as  well  as  food,  and  the  advisability  of  carefully 
attending  to  the  practice  of  mastication. 

It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  appetite  and  hunger 

are  by  no  means  synonymous,  the  latter  signifying  the 

call  of  the  body  for  food,  whilst  the  former  is  apparently 

derived  from  some  local  gastric  sensation. 

The  The  first  function  of  the  gastric  juice,  or  at  any  rate 

Internal     ^^  ^^-g  g^^^^j  content,  is  to  neutralise  the  alkaline  saliva 

)  LllCCS 

which  has  been  swallowed  with  the  food  and  is 
accumulated  in  the  fundus  or  left-hand  portion  of  the 
stomach.     It   may  be   as   well   to   state   here   that   the 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  13 

stomach    is    divided    into    two    portions    by    a    narrow 
constnctmg  band,   the   left   hand   portion-abont   four- 
Mths  of  the  whole,  being  practically  a  reservoir  which 
slowly  contracts  upon  its  contents  and  gradually  drives 
them  forward   to   the    smaller   or   pyloric   portion.     In 
this   latter   part  a   continuous   series   of  waves   of  con 
traction  is  taking  place,  causing  a  thorough  admixture 
of  the  food  with  the  gastric  juice  and  a  final  expulsion 
into  the  duodenum.     No   hydrochloric  acid   is  secreted 
m  the  pyloric  portion  of  the  stomach,  but  only  in  the 
undus      In  half  an  hour  or  so  it  completely  neutralises 
the  alkaline  saliva,  thus  stopping  the  further  digestion 
of  starch  at  this  stage. 

Meantinie  the  outflow  of  "  appetite  "  juice  has  ceased 
and  a  fresh   process  is  in  operation   for  the   continued 
secretion   of    gastric  juice.     This   is    originated   by  the 
action    of    certain    constituents    of    the    food   upon   the 
stomach  wall,  the  more  powerful  of  which  are  a  decoction 
ot    meat    or    soup—dextrins,    milk    and    water.     These 
substances    are    called    peptogens,   and    the  addition   of 
these  has  been  found  to  increase  the  digestive  activity 
ot    the    stomach    as    much   as   twenty-five   times      The 
most  important   peptogens   are   those   formed   from   the 
action  of  the  saliva  on  the  starchy  food  and  the  action 
of  the  appetite  juice  on  the  protein  food,  and  demon- 
strates  the  immense  value  of  mastication  and  agreeable 
food    and    surroundings    in    the    production    of    a   good 
digestion.     It   also   shows   how  important  a  little  good 
soup  may  be  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal,  even  although 
thereby  some  purins  may  be  introduced  into  the  system 

Large  quantities  of  fat,  as  also  alkalis,  tend  to 
dimmish  the  secretion  of  this  chemical  iuice  The 
composition  of  the  psychical  or  "appetite"  juice  is 
always   the   same  whatever  the  previous   food   may  be 


1 6        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

but  that  of  the  chemical  juice  is  modified  to  suit  the 
character  of  the  food,  bread  exciting  the  most  con- 
centrated juice,  meat  the  most  acid  juice,  and  milk  the 
least  of  all. 

When  all  the  protein  food  has  been  dissolved  and 
chemically  combined  with  the  gastric  juice — and  this 
should  take  place  in  an  hour  or  so — then  free  hydro- 
chloric acid  begins  to  appear,  and  this  is  the  signal  for 
some  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  to  pass  into  the 
duodenum.  This  takes  place  by  contractions  passing 
along  from  the  fundus  to  the  pylorus  about  every 
twenty  seconds,  and  an  answering  return  wave  shorter 
in  character  assists  in  thorough  admixture.  When  the 
food  has  been  finally  dissolved  it  is  pushed  into  the 
duodenum,  although  at  the  end  of  digestion  the  pylorus 
relaxes  to  allow  the  passage  of  even  solid  indigestible 
morsels  of  food. 

Such  is  a  brief  description  of  gastric  digestion,  and, 
complete  though  it  is,  it  does  not  apparently  solve  an 
anomaly  noticeable  in  our  daily  feeding.  The  question 
whether  carbohydrate  food  or  proteid  food  should  be 
eaten  first  is  answered  by  the  former  method  being 
preferred  at  breakfast  and  the  latter  at  dinner.  When 
proteins  are  eaten  first  and  carbohydrates  later,  the 
former  occupy  the  pyloric  end  of  the  stomach  and  the 
latter  lie  in  the  fundus  or  cardiac  end.  This  causes  a 
slow  discharge  of  the  carbohydrates,  which  must  there- 
fore- wait  until  the  proteins  have  been  expelled.  But 
there  is  no  great  loss  after  all,  because  the  saliva  for 
at  least  thirty  minutes  and  probably  longer  continues 
to  convert  the  starch  into  maltose  and  dextrose.  Still, 
if  the  carbohydrate  had  been  swallowed  at  the  early 
part  of  the  meal,  it  would  have  been  digested  and 
(quickly  removed  from  the  stomach  for  further  change 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  17 

in  the  bowel,  leaving  the  protein  in  full  possession  of 
the  gastric  juice.  Probably  both  methods  have  their 
value,  and  in  any  case  the  stomach  seems  to  be  able  to 
accommodate  itself  to  either  condition  of  afitairs. 

It  is  erroneous  to  think  that  the  stomach  wall  ia 
capable  of  any  great  degi'ee  of  absorption,  as  only 
alcohol,  sugar,  and  salts  and  a  little  peptone  (some  say 
as  much  as  20  per  cent.)  can  be  removed  in  this  way. 
The  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  even  strength  which 
occurs  often  after  the  first  mouthful  of  food  is  swallowed 
must  evidently  be  explained  by  reflex  action. 

The  gases  which  accumulate  and  are  so  frequently 
eructated  from  the  stomach  are  mostly  swallowed,  al- 
though some  hold  that  they  are  secreted  into  the  stomach 
from  the  blood. 

The  semi-digested  food,  or  chyme,  which  leaves  the  The  Pan- 
stomach    in   small    spurts    for    the    first    hour    or   two,  ti^^l  ^^^ 

^  '  the  Liver 

attains  its  maximum  rate  of  outflow  in  the  third  hour.  At 
the  same  time  two  fluids,  namely,  the  pancreatic  juice  and 
the  bile — the  former  the  product  of  the  pancreas,  a  gland 
lying  behind  the  stomach,  and  the  latter  of  the  liver, 
which  Hes  under  the  right  ribs — attain  their  maximum 
rate  of  secretion  and  mingle  with  the  chyme.  So  long 
as  the  chyme  remains  highly  acid,  peptic  digestion  goes 
on  even  in  the  duodenum,  but  the  strongly  alkaline 
pancreatic  fluid  quickly  neutralises  the  hydrochloric  acid 
and  the  intestinal  digestion  begins. 

The  mechanism  whereby  the  pancreatic  juice  and  bile 
are  called  forth  at  the  psychological  moment  is  extremely 
interesting.  When  the  acid  chyme  comes  into  contact 
with  the  lining  membrane  of  the  duodenum  a  substance 
called  "  secretin  "  is  formed  from  the  pro-secretin  within 
its  cells.  This  is  absorbed  into  the  blood — being  one 
of  a  great  class  of  agencies  called  "  internal  secretions  " 


i8        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

—and  stimulates  the  pancreas  and  liver  to  seerete  their 
respective  digestive  fluids.  The  pancreatic  is  the  most 
powerful  digestive  juice  known,  and  contams  three  fer- 
ments •  (1)  trypsinogen,  for  digesting  protems  ;  (2)  amy- 
lase for  converting  carbohydrates  into  maltose  or  sugar ; 
(3) 'lipase,  for  splitting  up  fats.  Trypsinogen  itself 
is 'fortunately,  inactive  till  it  comes  into  contact  with 
a 'ferment  in  the  intestine  called  enterokmase,  where 
trypsin,  the  active  agency,  is  found.  Were  it  otherwise 
the  pancreas  itself  would  stand  a  very  good  chance  ot 

being  digested.  t     -fa 

The  bile  is  both  a  secretion  and  an  excretion,     in  its 
former    capacity    it    has    a    feeble    tendency    to    digest 
starch      Its  other  function  is  fulfilled  by  the  bile  salts 
which  precipitate  the   chyme    on    the    projecting    folds 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small  intestme,  and  so 
it  is  more  easily  attacked  by  the  pancreatic  juice.    ^Bile 
also   converts   fats   into  soluble   soaps  (which  are  only 
compounds  of  fat  and  an  alkali)  and  glycerme,  m  which 
form    they    are   easily    absorbed.     It    greatly   aids    the 
work  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  doubling  its  power  of  dis- 
solving proteins,  and  trebling  its  fat-splitting  function. 
It  also  assists  in  carrying  off  two  very  important  waste 
matters— cholesterin  and  lecithin— which  greatly  impede 
the  activity  of  the  nervous  system. 
The  Small       The  enteric  juice  is  secreted  from  the  whole  surface 
Intestine,   ^f  the  bowel  right  down  to  within  a  few  inches  ot  the 
anus      Besides    the    highly    important    enterokinase,  it 
contains  erepsin,  which  finally  disposes  of  the  protems— 
the  only  waste  matter  left  being  a  fatty  acid  called  leucm 
and  an  aromatic  acid  called  tyrosin.     It  likewise  con- 
tains a  ferment  which  converts  cane  sugar  into  a  mixture 
of  dextrose  and  laivulose,  and  completely  changes  mal- 
tose into  dextrose,  and  also  inverts  milk  sugar. 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  19 

In  this  highly  complex  though  extremely  efficient 
manner  the  insoluble  food  is  converted  into  a  series  of 
soluble  substances,  which  are  absorbed  into  the  blood 
through  the  bowel  wall.  The  process  is  hastened  by 
means  of  the  intestinal  movements,  which  are  of  two 
kinds:  (1)  an  undulatory  swaying  motion,  intended  to 
mix  the  contents  of  the  bowel ;  (2)  peristalsis,  which  is 
a  slow  vermicular  movement  for  squeezing  forward  the 
contents.  These  are  much  more  intense  during  hunger, 
when  the  normal  rate  of  1  inch  per  minute  is  greatly 
increased. 

Eighty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  nutriment  of  the  food 
enters  the  blood  before  the  contents  of  the  bowel  have 
reached  the  colon,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
diarrhoea  confined  to  this  latter  organ  does  not  appreci- 
ably lower  the  nutrition  of  a  patient.  As  the  contents 
of  the  small  intestine  pass  into  the  colon,  they  only 
contain  5  to  1 0  per  cent,  of  solid  matter,  and,  as  from  a  ^ 
to  1  pint  of  semi-liquid  matter  reaches  the  colon  every 
twenty-four  hours,  an  enormous  amount  of  fluid  must  be 
absorbed  by  the  colon. 

Practically  95  per  cent,  of  a  meal  is  absorbed,  the 
sugar  and  peptones  into  the  blood  and  the  fats  by  the 
intestinal  villi  (the  finger-like  processes  lining  the  inside 
of  the  bowel)  into  the  lacteals,  and  then  through  the 
thoracic  duct  to  the  circulation.  The  refuse  is  called 
the  faeces  and,  according  to  Metchnikoff,  consists,  as  to 
one-third  of  its  contents,  of  microbes,  which  grow  at  the 
rate  of  128,000,000,000,000  per  day.  Their  growth 
is  checked  chiefly  by  phagocytes  resident  in  the  colon, 
which  feed  upon  the  microbes.  As  age  advances  the 
appetite  of  the  phagocytes  becomes  more  capricious, 
however,  and  they  attack  the  tissues  themselves, 
leaving  only  the    binding    or    connective    tissue.      This 


20        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

it  is  which  constitutes  the  reason  for  the  onset  of  old 
age. 

The  ingredients  of  a  meal  swallowed  at  eight  o'clock 
in  the  morning  should  pass  through  the  24  feet  down  to 
the  colon  in  about  four  and  a  half  hours,  reach  the  top 
of  the  ascending  colon  about  five  o'clock,  and  be  in  the 
sigmoid  flexure  next  morning.  Probably  part  of  its 
indigestible  residue  may  be  excreted  in  twenty-four 
hours,  but  in  anything  after  thirty  hours  it  should  all 
be  expelled.  The  act  of  defcecation  is  partly  muscular 
and  partly  due  to  peristaltic  action  of  the  colon. 
Tlie  Having  now  passed  in  review  the  methods  whereby 

Bill  of  insoluble  organised  substances  used  as  food  are  converted 
Fare.  [-^^q  soluble  material  capable  of  being  absorbed  into  the 
blood,  we  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  food  itself,  and 
we  are  at  once  impressed  by  the  remarkable  fact  that  of 
all  the  substances  used  as  food  only  two  are  directly 
formed  for  this  and  no  other  purpose.  These  two  are 
milk  and  honey,  the  former  being  solely  intended  for 
the  food  of  young  mammaJs,  and  the  latter  being  stored 
up  by  bees  to  serve  them  for  food  in  the  winter.  Of 
these  two,  milk  alone  is  capable  unaided  of  sustaining 
human  life  for  any  length  of  time,  but  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  obtain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it  to  subserve 
the  dietetic  necessities  of  mankind,  even  although  it  were 
possible  for  it  to  maintain  human  beings  in  perfect 
health  and  vigour  for  any  considerable  period. 

There  is  indeed  no  single  food  discovered  which  will 
do  this,  and  so  we  are  compelled  to  fall  back  upon  certain 
great  food  staples,  which  have  by  a  process  of  evolution 
proved  themselves  capable  of  effectively  nourishing 
humanity  with  the  minimum  of  undesirable  effects.  It 
is  surprising  to  find  how  few  of  these  there  are  when  we 
come  to  look  into  the  matter  closely.     The  flesh  and 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  21 

milk  of  three  or  four  domesticated  animals,  the  flesh  of 
three  or  four  and  the  eggs  of  one  species  of  domesticated 
birds,  three  great  grains — wheat,  rice,  and  maize — and 
half  a  dozen  smaller  and  much  less  frequent  ones,  one 
hundred  or  so  species  of  fishes  and  shell  fish,  two  sugars, 
a  dozen  or  two  starch-containing  roots  and  tubers,  twenty 
or  thirty  fruits,  forty  or  fifty  vegetables — these  constitute 
two-thirds  of  the  food  supply  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  fall  into  the  two  categories  The 
of  flesh  and  fleshless  foods,  and  right  at  the  threshold  of  7^?^' 

'  o  tarian 

our  subject  we  must  face  the  problem  as  to  the  status  Contro- 
of  fiesh  foods  in  human  diet.  We  may  take  it  for  ^^^^^' 
granted  that,  once  the  albumins  enter  the  blood,  it  does 
not  matter  whether  they  are  vegetable  or  animal,  the 
results  on  nutrition  ought  to  be  the  same.  I  am 
aware  that  much  controversy  has  raged  and  is  raging 
round  this  very  problem  at  the  present  moment, 
but  even  the  most  bigoted  flesh  eater  would  admit  that 
all  proteins  in  the  blood  are  equally  capable  of  nourishing 
the  tissues,-^  I  dare  not  say  as  much  for  the  "  fleshless  " 
eater,  who  is  absolutely  convinced  that  animal  albumins 
can  never  build  up  a  sound  and  healthy  body.  Any  one 
possessed  of  an  unbiased  judgment,  however,  must  agree 
with  the  flesh-eater's  view,  however  much   he  may   be 

^  During  a  recent  visit  to  Yale  University,  Professor  L.  B.  Mendel 
favoured  me  with  his  views  on  vegetarianism.  Amongst  other  things 
he  joined  issue  with  me  on  this  statement  that  "all  proteins  in  the  blood 
are  equally  capable  of  nourishing  the  tissues."  He  believes  that  the  com- 
position of  proteins  is  so  varied  and  complex  that  it  is  unwise  to  confine 
oneself  to  a  limited  number  and  kind.  As  it  is  impossible  to  say  just 
what  functions  they  subserve  in  the  human  economy,  deprivation  of  any 
one  of  them  may  in  time  be  detrimental  to  the  body  by  denying  it  some 
important  source  of  nutrition.  He  therefore  lives  on  a  mixed  diet,  al- 
though a  fleshless  diet  appears  to  suit  him  equally  well  for  short  periods 
of  time. 


22         THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  waste  matters  introduced 
with  the  animal  albumins  are  detrimental  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted 
that  the  nitrogenous  matter  obtained  from  vegetables  is 
less  easily  digested  than  that  which  is  of  animal  origin, 
a  much  larger  percentage  passing  from  the  alimentary 
tract  unutilised. 

"  Few  persons  live  upon  a  purely  vegetarian  diet. 
Those  who  attempt  it  lose  vigour  and  show  languor  and 
disinclination  for  physical  and  mental  work  ;  they  become 
less  able  to  resist  disease.  Because  a  vegetable  diet  is 
an  economical  one,  it  has  sometimes  been  forced  upon 
bodies  of  labourers,  but  uniformly  the  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  work  that  they  are  able  to  perform  more 
than  counterbalances  the  decreased  expense  of  their 
food.  In  vegetables  enough  protein  can  be  found  to 
make  it  possible  to  substitute  them  for  meat  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  life  and  strength.  As  vegetable 
protein  is  very  imperfectly  digested  and  absorbed,  a 
sufficient  vegetable  diet  must  be  a  very  bulky  one.  It 
will  maintain  strength,  and,  by  eating  vegetable  food 
only,  one  may  be  able  to  lift  as  much,  but  he  will  not  be 
able  to  work  so  fast  as  on  a  mixed  diet.  He  will  lack 
energy  and  alertness.  It  is  quite  evident  from  man's 
anatomical  structure,  physiological  functions,  and  habits  of 
eating,  that  a  mixed  diet  is  best  adapted  to  his  needs. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  too  much 
meat  is  ordinarily  eaten  by  many  individuals." 

I  have  quoted  this  paragraph  verbatim,  from  Davis's 
Dietotherapy  and  Food  in  Health,  to  indicate  what  is  the 
position  of  the  orthodox  medical  practitioner  of  the 
present  day  on  this  great  subject.  And  this  position  is 
maintained  in  face  of  the  great  accumulation  of  evidence 
which  is  lying  to  hand  that  numbers  of  people  live  on 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  23 

the  very  diet  which  we  are  told  is  unsuitable  and  incap- 
able of  giving  good  results  in  daily  life.  I  am  personally 
acquainted  with  many  people  who  live  on  a  purely 
vegetarian  diet,  i.e.  fruits,  nuts,  and  cereals,  and  I  have 
always  been  envious  of  their  physical  and  mental  vigour 
and  energy.  There  is  an  increasing  nnmber  in  this 
country  and  America  who  live  upon  a  purely  fleshless 
diet,  although  including  such  products  of  the  animal 
kingdom  as  eggs,  milk,  cheese,  and  the  many  milk  pro- 
teins now  on  the  market.  Xo  one  can  gainsay  the  fact 
that  the  highest  degree  of  physical  and  mental  health 
can  be  maintained  on  such  a  diet,  and  that  it  is  infinitely 
more  suitable  than  a  mixed  diet  for  a  large  proportion  of 
present-day  town  dwellers.  At  the  same  time,  those  who 
elect  to  subsist  on  a  fleshless  diet  would  be  well  advised  to 
include  a  considerable  proportion  of  milk  and  egg  protein 
in  their  diet,  or,  if  they  refuse  to  do  so,  they  should  at 
least  take  care  to  provide  themselves  with  some  of  the 
many  carefully  prepared  nut  foods  now  on  the  market. 

The  objections  advanced  against  a  flesh  diet  may  be 
divided  into  two  categories : — (1)  Those  which  are  true 
or  contain  a  modicum  of  truth — generally  held  by  the 
more  intelligent  class  of  vegetarians ;  (2)  those  which 
are  purely  fanciful,  and  held  by  the  over-zealous  vege- 
tarians. Amongst  the  former  class  may  be  mentioned 
the  following  : — 

(1)  Animals  are  liable  to  disease  which  may  be  com- 
municated by  their  flesh,  and  it  is  suggested  or  tacitly 
assumed  that  cancer  is  much  more  prevalent  amongst 
meat  eaters  than  amongst  vegetarians.  Xow,  cancer 
occurs  in  all  the  vertebrates  except  the  reptiles  (almost 
exclusively  meat  eaters).  It  is  found  in  mammals  tame 
and  wild,  in  birds  tame  and  wild,  in  amphibia,  in  fresh- 
water fish  and  in  sea- water  fish  in  a  state  of  nature.     The 


24        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

reports  of  the  Imperial  Cancer  Eesearch  Fund  state  that 
the  following  figures  represent  the  classification  of  the 
natives  of  India  who  die  from  the  disease  as  regards 
their  dietetic  habits:  one  hundred  and  forty-six  vege- 
tarians, one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  flesh  eaters,  two 
hundred  and  twenty-two  on  a  mixed  diet.  Cooking 
practically  sterilises  animal  food,  and  takes  away  all 
possible  chance  of  the  conveyance  of  disease  thereby.^ 
On  the  other  hand,  more  diseases  are  probably  dissemin- 
ated by  the  use  of  vegetable  food  than  by  animal  food. 
The  huge  epidemics  of  ergotism  and  lathyrism,  from  the 
use  of  rye  and  millet  respectively,  testify  to  this  fact, 
and  it  is  well  to  realise  that  most  germs  belong  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

(2)  "Animals  are  slaughtered  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  their  flesh  rich  in  waste  matter  and  dangerous  as 
food."  It  is  quite  certain  that  if  animals  be  over-driven 
to  the  slaughter-house  and  killed  immediately,  their 
flesh  is  not  likely  to  be  so  wholesome  as  if  they  had 
been  kept  apart  and  quiet  for  say  twenty-four  hours, 
and  the  latter  practice  prevails  in  all  abattoirs  under 
public  supervision. 

^  Whilst  I  was  in  residence  at  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  U.S.A.,  Dr. 
J.  T.  Case,  the  well-known  dietetic  expert  of  this  institution,  criticised 
my  arguments  on  the  vegetarian  controversy.  He  contended  that  it  was 
impossible  to  raise  a  joint  of  meat  to  boiling-point  during  the  process  of 
cooking,  and  hence  it  could  not  be  sterilised.  I  know  that  it  is  quite 
certain  that  the  central  portions  of  a  joint  cannot  be  raised  much  above 
180°  F.  during  cooking.  But  the  characteristics  of  diseased  meat  are  so 
well  known  that  it  is  almost  an  impossibility  for  it  to  get  near  the  dinner- 
table.  There  is  no  doubt  that  cooking  alters  in  an  important  degree  the 
so-called  waste  products  in  the  meat,  producing  sapidity,  which  is  a 
valuable  peptogenic  quality.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  flesh 
abstainer  carefully  endeavours  to  imitate  this  flavour  in  the  preparation 
of  his  vegetarian  nitrogenous  foods.  But  it  is  equally  impossible  to 
sterilise  fruit,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Professor  Metchnikoff,  much  to 
the  discomfiture  of  French  hygienists. 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  25 

(3)  "  Animal  flesh  as  sold  in  butchers'  shops  is  always 
in  a  state  of  decay  and  putrefaction."  This  unquestion- 
ably overstates  the  case,  although  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  absence  of  life  is  the  signal  for  such  changes 
to  begin,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  they  arise  almost  as 
rapidly  and  with  as  much  certainty  in  most  vegetables 
and  many  friiits.  Cooking,  again,  minimises,  if  it  does 
not  entirely  counteract,  this  condition. 

(4)  "  Flesh  is  a  stimulating  food,  and  may  give  rise 
to  a  craving  for  other  stimulants."  All  nations  whatever 
their  diet  have  their  own  form  of  stimulant,  and  I  am  not 
sure  whether  in  this  country  the  cause  of  over-indulgence 
in  alcohol,  at  least  amongst  the  female  sex,  should  not  be 
laid  at  the  door  of  excessive  drinking  of  tea.  Tea  and 
coffee,  which  are  of  vegetable  origin,  are  undoubtedly 
much  more  stimulating  than  flesh. 

(5)  "  The  stimulants  in  animal  food  are  actually  ex- 
cretions which  have  formed  in  the  animal  prior  to  death." 
It  is  quite  true  that  if  an  animal  be  over-driven  and 
overfed,  waste  matters  will  form  in  the  flesh,  which,  had 
it  lived  long  enough,  would  have  been  excreted  by  the 
kidneys.  But  these  objections  need  not  obtain,  and  it 
is  quite  easy  to  separate  these  waste  matters  during 
cooking,  if  necessary.  Besides,  many  valuable  vegetable 
foods  contain  poisonous  secretions,  e.g.  the  husks  of  nuts 
and  the  poisons  in  cassava  root,  from  which  tapioca  is  made. 

The  second  class  of  objections  need  not  detain  us  long.  Fallacious 
(1)  The  humanitarian  argument.  At  the  first  blush  ^^S^J- 
this  would  appear  to  be  a  powerful  reason  against  eating 
animal  flesh,  but  careful  investigations  will  establish  the 
fact  that  an  animal  is  killed  much  more  expeditiously 
and  with  infinitely  less  cruelty  than  would  be  its  lot 
were  it  left  to  die  in  a  natural  manner.  From  personal 
observations    I   am    quite    convinced    of    this    fact,    as 


26       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

also  of  the  fact  that  slaughterers  are  as  a  rule  amongst 
the  most  humane  of  men. 

(2)  It  is  stated  that  no  one  can  possibly  eat  meat 
unless  it  is  cooked  and  flavoured  in  such  a  way  as  to  dis- 
guise in  some  degree  its  origin.  But  the  same  statements 
may  clearly  be  made  about  vegetables  and  many  fruits. 

(3)  The  aesthetic  argument  is  not  of  great  value.  It 
loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  most  meat  eaters  admit  fruits 
with  vegetables  and  cereals  into  their  diet,  and  hence  the 
suggestiveness  of  summer  and  all  its  allied  pleasures 
may  be  obtained  by  them  as  well  as  by  the  vegetarian. 

(4)  The  anatomical  argument  will  not  bear  much 
investigation.  A  look  at  the  teeth,  which  include  cut- 
ting, tearing,  and  sharp  grinding  molars  with  clearly 
cusped  edges,  indicates  their  suitability  for  a  mixed  diet. 
The  stomach  is  closely  allied  to  that  of  a  dog  or  cat,  and 
not  in  the  least  like  that  of  a  herbivorous  or  gramin- 
ivorous animal.  The  intestinal  canal  is  only  about  five 
times  the  body  length,  as  in  the  carnivora,  instead  of 
being  from  ten  to  twenty  times,  as  in  the  herbivora.  It 
is  commonly  asserted  that  the  anthropoid  apes  live  on 
fruits,  nuts,  and  cereals,  but  that  is  not  quite  true,  as 
they  eat  insects,  worms,  small  birds  and  such  other 
animals  as  they  can  capture.  It  is  also  quite  certain 
that  in  captivity  they  always  succumb  to  tuberculosis 
without  a  supply  of  animal  food.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  tuberculosis  is  rarely  seen  in  carnivora,  practi- 
cally never  in  the  omnivorous  pig,  but  it  is  quite  common 
amongst  cattle,  chickens,  pheasants,  and  turkeys.  It  is 
pretty  certain  that  the  anthropoid  apes  have  only  re- 
mained as  such  from  the  lack  or  disuse  of  the  hunting 
and  house-constructing  faculties  which  caused  their 
troglodytic  cognates  to  develop  into  man. 

The  only  argument  in  favour  of  vegetarianism  to-day 


FOOD  (GENERAL) 


27 


tion. 


that  has  the  slightest  value  for  the  individual  is  the 
personal  one,  to  which  there  is  no  answer.  When  a 
man  says  that  he  can  exist  in  perfect  health  and  full 
possession  of  his  faculties  on  a  fleshless  diet,  then  it  is 
pretty  clear  that  it  suits  him,  and  he  would  be  foolish 
to  add  flesh  if  for  any  reason  he  objected  to  it.  But 
this  is  the  only  reason  against  a  moderate  use  of  flesh 
food  which  has  the  slightest  value. 

The  object  of  nutrition  is  to  balance  the  waste  and  The  Needa 
repair  of  the  body.  If,  therefore,  we  can  estimate  the  ^[^^'^*"" 
precise  amount  of  waste  matter,  calculated  as  nitrogen, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  it  is  quite  easy  to  draw 
up  a  table  of  the  dietetic  requirements  of  the  body  for 
its  maintenance  in  a  condition  of  nutritive  equilibrium 
Obviously  this  amount  will  vary  according  to  the  age 
and  size  of  the  individual,  the  amount  of  work  he  per- 
forms, the  external  temperature  and  other  less  important 
factors,  such  as  idiosyncrasy.  Practically  all  excretions 
from  the  body  appear  in  the  form  of  urea,  carbonic  acid, 
and  water,  and  it  is  quite  easy  to  construct  a  balance 
sheet  of  profit  and  loss  such  as  the  following : — 


Grammes. 

Ounces.          Nitrogen. 

Carbon. 

Proteins     . 
Pats  . 
Carbohydrates    , 

100 
100 
250 

(nearly 

(     „ 

1 

3J)        15-5 

3i)          ... 
8^-)          ... 

15-5 

Nitrogen. 

53 
79 
98 

230 

Carbon. 

Urine    . 

Fceces    . 
Eespiration    . 

• 

• 

.     14-4 
.       1-1 

15-5 

6-16 

10-84 
208-00 

225-00 

28        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

For  all  practical  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  consider 
only  the  nitrogen  and  carbon  of  the  food  and  excreta,  and 
the  above  table  is  self-explanatory.  It  is  quite  possible 
to  have  a  nitrogenous  equilibrium  only,  and  to  have  too 
little  or  too  much  of  the  fat  and  carbohydrate  element. 
In  either  case  health  may  be  maintained,  but  in  the 
former  case  too  little  heat  and  energy  would  be  evolved, 
whereas  in  the  latter  case  fat  would  be  deposited  in  the 
tissues.  Another  method  of  estimation,  which  is  perhaps 
more  generally  employed,  is  to  calculate  the  amount  of 
potential  energy  contained  in  the  food  and  see  that  it 
corresponds  with  the  amount  of  external  work  transacted 
and  the  amount  of  heat  evolved  for  maintaining  the 
temperature  of  the  body  and  warming  the  breath  and 
other  excreta. 

Each  of  the  alimentary  principles,  when  completely 
oxidised  by  burning,  gives  out  a  definite  quantity  of 
heat  for  every  gramme  burnt.  This  is  known  as  the 
heat  or  caloric  value,  and  the  unit  employed — called  a 
calorie — is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  a 
gramme  of  water  through  1°  Centigrade. 

It  is  usual  to  state  them  in  thousands  or  kilocalories, 
and  print  them  with  a  capital  C.  thus : — 

1  grm.  or   \  part  of  an  ounce  of  protein     .      =  4"1  Calories. 
1  ,  jj  J)  f^t     .      .      =9  "3       „ 

1  „  „  „  carbohydrate  =  4-1       „ 

By  computing  the  amount  of  heat  lost  from  the  body 
in  an  instrument  called  a  calorimeter  it  is  quite  easy  to 
furnish  a  statement  of  the  calories  of  food  required  to 
repair  the  waste.  I  had  the  good  fortune  in  the  early 
part  of  this  year  to  be  able  to  inspect  the  magnificent 
calorimeters     in     the     Nutrition     Laboratory,    Boston, 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  29 

Massachusetts,  a  branch  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Washington.  They  were  constructed  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  Director,  Dr.  Francis  G.  Benedict, 
whose  great  experience  in  the  science  of  calorimetry  is 
so  well  known.  A  detailed  description  would  occupy 
too  much  space,  but  it  may  be  briefly  stated  that  each 
instrument  consists  of  a  chamber  large  enough  to  contain 
a  full  sized  man,  with  double  metallic  walls.  The  space 
between  the  double  walls  is  filled  with  water,  and  the 
outside  of  the  outer  wall  is  carefully  padded  with  felt, 
and  the  whole  instrument  is  enclosed  in  a  much  larger 
metal  box,  the  air  space  between  being  equipped  with 
the  most  elaborate  automatic  mechanical  precautions, 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  any  heat  excepting  to  the 
water.  The  subject  to  be  experimented  upon  is  con- 
fined for  hours  or  days  in  the  enclosed  chamber,  careful 
arrangements  being  made  for  breathing  and  feeding,  and 
the  heat  taken  up  by  the  water  is  the  measure  of  the 
energy  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  food  material 
in  his  body.  In  testing  a  diet  it  is  sufficient  to  know 
that  nitrogenous  equilibrium  is  maintained  and  then  to 
estimate  the  gain  or  loss  in  weight  and  the  output  of 
energy  in  external  work.  It  is  stated  that  a  body  loses 
each  day  during  starvation  one-eightieth  part  of  its 
weight,  so  that,  were  it  possible  to  live  so  long,  it  would 
be  all  consumed  in  eighty  days.  As  a  rule,  however, 
death  would  take  place  in  about  half  that  time. 
Proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates,  water,  and  mineral  matter 
must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  food  to  counterbalance 
the  waste  of  the  tissues. 

Gautier  has  shown  that  the  amount  of  food  required 
depends  upon  the  superficial  area  of  the  skin,  because 
one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  food  is  the 
maintenance    of    animal    heat.     As   heat  is  chiefly  lost 


30        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

through  the  skin,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  estimate 
the  amount  of  food  required  from  the  skin  surface. 
Children  and  small  people  have  a  much  larger  skin 
surface  in  proportion  to  their  weight  than  adults  or  large 
people.  A  child  of  10  lb.  weight  has  a  skin  area  of 
3  sq.  ft,  whereas  a  man  weighing  200  lb.  or  twenty 
times  as  much  has  a  skin  surface  of  21  sq.  ft.,  only 
seven  times  as  much.  The  child  of  10  lb.  weight 
therefore  requires  one-seventh  as  much  food  as  a  man 
weighing  200  lb.,  instead  of  only  one-twentieth  as  much. 
To  calculate  the  amount  of  food  required  by  different 
people  of  varying  sizes,  weights,  and  skin  surfaces, 
multiply  the  weight  in  pounds  by  the  factor  4*2  5  and  the 
skin  area  in  feet  by  the  factor  80.  The  sum  of  these 
two  products  will  represent  the  number  of  calories  per 
day  required  to  balance  the  loss  sustained  by  the  dis- 
sipation of  heat  from  the  body  and  the  loss  of  energy 
expended  in  vital  work.  If  the  subject  is  doing  severe 
muscular  exertion,  then  the  factor  7  should  be  used 
instead  of  4"25. 

To  ascertain  the  average  normal  weight  of  an  adult 
it  is  only  necessary  to  subtract  42  from  the  height  in 
inches,  multiply  the  remainder  by  5^,  and  the  result 
will  be  the  normal  weight  in  pounds.  Obesity  begins 
when  the  weight  has  increased  more  than  one-tenth 
beyond  the  normal  average. 
Percent-  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  calorific  value 
age  Com-  ^f  g^  ^^^^  when  its  composition  is  known.      All  that  is 

position,  ^ 

and  Caloric  necessary  is  to  multiply  its  percentage  value  by  the 
\aiue.  appropriate  factor  to  discover  the  number  of  calories 
per  ounce  of  each  food  principle.  For  protein  and 
carbohydrates  the  factor  is  1"16,  and  for  fats  the 
factor  is  2 '6 3.  Conversely,  to  determine  the  percentage 
composition  of  a  food  when  its  caloric  value  is  known, 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  31 

divide  by  these  factors.  For  example,  bread  contains 
about  9  per  cent,  of  protein,  1  per  cent,  of  fat,  and 
65  per  cent,  of  carbohydrate,  or 

(9    X  1'16  =  )  10"4  calories  per  ounce  of  protein. 

(1    x2-63  =  )    2-63  „  „  fat. 

(65  X  0-16  =  )  754  „  „  carbohydrates. 

Bread  has  thus  a  total  value  equal  to  1414  calories  per 
pound. 

The  average  composition  of  meat  is  20  per  cent. 
protein,  1'5  per  cent,  of  fat,  with  a  negligible  quantity 
of  carbohydrate,  or 

(  20    X  0'16  =  )  23'2  calories  per  ounce  of  protein. 
(1-15  X  2-63  =  )    3-9  „  „  fat. 

Meat  has  thus  a  total  value  equal  to  432  calories  per 
pound. 

Proteins  and  fats  may  be  either  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin,  but  all  available  carbohydrates  are 
entirely  of  vegetable  origin ;  and  as  three-fourths  of  our 
food  partakes  of  this  character,  it  will  be  seen  that  we 
are  compelled  to  draw  upon  the  vegetable  kingdom  to 
that  extent  for  our  means  of  subsistence. 

The  most  important  of  these  alimentary  principles  is  The 
protein,  because  it  is  from  it  that  our  tissues  are  built  pgn^yg 
up.     It  is  quite  possible  to  live  without  fats  or  carbo-  Protein, 
hydrates,  or  even  water,  for  a  very  long  time,  but  it  is 
not  possible  to  live  without    protein    for   even  a  short 
space    of    time.      If    food    does    not    contain    as    much 
protein  as  is  necessary,  the   deficit  is  made  up  at  the 
expense    of    the    tissues.       Loss    of    weight    need    not 
necessarily  occur,  because  fat  may  be  deposited,  but  loss 
of  strength,  owing  to  waste  of  muscle,  will  most  certainly 
take  place.     Insufficiency  of    protein  in  the  diet  is  at 
3 


32        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

once  made  evident  by  a  diminution  of.  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  urea  in  the  urine,  and  hence  it  is  important  to 
see  that  nitrogen  equilibrium  is  estabhshed. 

It    is    usually  stated    that  we   require  from   100   to 
125   grms.  of    protein    in    twenty-four    hours,  i.e.  from 
3  to  a  little  over  4  oz.,  and  it  is  declared  that  without 
this  quantity  a  man  will  get  below  par  and  lay  himself 
open    to    disease.     But    man    is    a  wonderfully  accoin- 
modating  creature,  and  each  man  is  a  law  unto  himself, 
so  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  it  is  quite  possible 
for  individuals  to  live  on  50  grms.,  i.e.  somethmg  less 
than  2  oz.  of  protein.     In  such  circumstances,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  a  larger  quantity  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  and  it  is  just  here  that  the  wonderful  capacity 
of  man  to  live  in  all  sorts  of    climates  and  under  all 
sorts  of   conditions  displays  itself.     In  South  America, 
where   meat  is  plentiful,  the   gaucho   takes  more  than 
4  oz  of  protein ;  whereas  in  India,  where  meat  is  scarce 
and  there  is  great  poverty,  less  than   2  oz.  are  taken, 
and  so   a  great    excess    of    carbohydrates  is  consumed. 
Truly,  to  parody  the  adage,  one  nation's  meat  is  another 

nation's  poison. 

It  is  a  fact  well  worth  careful  consideration  thau  a 
low    protein,  usually  fleshless,  diet  is    the   diet  of    the 
enslaved,  stagnant,  and   conquered   races,  and  diet  rich 
in  meat  and  of  high  protein  value,  is  that  of  the  pro- 
gressive,   dominant,    conquering    strains.     Probably    the 
chief  factor  lies  in  the  amount  and  not  the  nature  of 
the  protein.     A  liberal  supply  of   protein  undoubtedly 
.      stimulates  the  vital  powers,  and,  where  open-air  life  is 
possible,    tends    towards    great    strength    and    abundant 
health,  but,  where  this  is   denied,  leads  to  excesses  of 
all  kinds  in  the  way  of    stimulants,  such    as    tea    and 
alcohol.     It  is  quite  possible,  by  increasing  the  protein 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  33 

allowance  in  a  mixed  diet  which  maintains  the  body 
weight  and  nitrogenous  equilibrium,  to  bring  about  a 
nitrogen  deficit  and  diminish  the  body  weight.  A 
diminished  supply  of  protein,  on  the  other  hand,  always 
leads  to  the  opposite  state  of  lowered  vitality,  but,  as 
the  friction  is  much  less,  there  is  less  necessity  for 
the  consumption  of  stimulants,  and  diseases  of  a 
certain  type,  especially  gout,  rheumatism,  and  allied 
states,  are  less  rife.  It  ought  to  be  mentioned,  how- 
ever, that,  as  a  set-off  to  this,  other  diseases  are  apt 
to  arise,  e.g.  diabetes  in  India,  beri-beri  in  Japan, 
etc. 

For  every  ounce  of  protein  swallowed,  from  4  to  6  of  A  Speci- 
fat  and  carbohydrates  are  necessary,  and  for  every  ounce  °^®°  * 
of  fat  from  5  to  10  of  carbohydrates  are  essential. 
Three  and  a  half  ounces  of  protein,  i.e.  100  grms.,  the 
same  of  fat,  and  about  8  or  9  of  carbohydrates,  i.e. 
250  grms.  (all,  of  course,  being  water-free),  make  a  very 
fair  allowance  for  a  man  of  1 0 1  stone  in  weight.  Three 
times  this  amount  of  water  and  about  ^  an  ounce  of 
mineral  salts  are  also  necessary.  This  would  amount  to 
nearly  2400  calories,  and  would  be  represented  by  about 
17  oz.  of  lean  meat,  the  same  of  bread  and  4  oz.  of 
butter.  Of  course,  the  diet  would  be  much  more  varied 
than  this,  and  might  be  made  up  as  follows : — Bread, 
12  oz. ;  meat,  6  oz. ;  potatoes,  10  oz. ;  milk,  1  pt. ; 
butter,  1  oz. ;  oatmeal,  3  oz. ;  sugar,  3  oz. 

It  is  a  point  worth  observing  that,  wherever  animal 
proteins  are  easily  obtained,  either  from  natural  or 
economic  accessibility,  they  are  usually  selected.  Even 
in  Japan,  which  has  falsely  obtained  the  reputation  of 
a  vegetarian  country,  eggs  and  fish  form  a  part  of  the 
dietary  and  have  always  done  so,  and  now  that  its 
large   army   has    begun   to  know    active  service   on   an 


34        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

extensive  scale,  the  people  are  rapidly  becoming  flesh 
eaters. 

A  man  doing  hard  muscular  work  would  require  a 
much  more  liberal  dietary  than  the  above — a  slight 
increase  in  the  proteins  and  a  greatly  increased  quantity 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  European  labourers,  of  what- 
ever nationality  or  occupation,  consume  the  alimentary 
principles  in  much  the  same  proportions  :  Proteins,  about 
135  grms.,  or  4^  oz. ;  fats,  80  grms.,  nearly  3  oz. ;  carbo- 
hydrates, 500  to  700  grms.,  16  to  23  oz. — representing 
from  3500  to  4000  calories. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  margin  of  protein  con- 
sumption is  by  no  means  a  large  one,  and  this  is 
foitunate,  for  it  is  the  most  costly  of  foods.  A  sedentary 
man,  during  the  first  week  of  an  active  open-air  holiday, 
will  consume  a  greatly  increased  supply  of  protein,  but 
at  the  end  of  this  time  returns  to  his  normal  limit,  and 
increases  his  carbohydrate  allowance  in  order  to  supply 
the  requisite  force  demanded  by  his  muscular  exertions. 
He  is  impelled  to  this  course  by  instinct  and  by  the 
discomfort  produced  by  a  greater  quantity  of  nitrogenous 
residue  demanding  elimination  by  the  kidneys. 

Experiments  demonstrate  that,  as  the  protein  allow- 
ance is  diminished,  an  increasing  proportion  of  carbo- 
hydrate must  be  substituted,  providing  a  caloric  value  of 
total  food  several  times  greater  than  is  necessary,  and 
finally  quite  impossible  for  the  digestion  to  cope  with. 

It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  these  facts  with  those 
obtained  by  Chittenden  described  in  Chapter  X.  (on 
Moderation),  but  it  is  quite  clear  that  diminution  of 
protein  is  more  easily  tolerated  than  its  increase. 
Within  limits,  indeed,  this  course  is  desirable,  and 
doubtless  further  experience  will  enable  scientists  to 
fix  the  protein   optimum   at   a   point  much  nearer  the 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  35 

protein  minimum  than  they  are  at  present  willing  to 
allow.  Chittenden  has  shown  that  of  the  total  amoimt 
of  nitrogen  thrown  off  by  the  body,  nine-tenths  is  in  the 
form  of  urea,  nine-tenths  of  the  remainder  is  uric 
acid,  and  nine- tenths  of  the  remainder  is  xanthin. 
As  urea  contains  45  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  protein 
15  per  cent,  every  gramme  of  urea  excreted  shows  that 
3  grms.  of  dry  protein  has  been  consumed,  or  in  terms 
of  nitrogen,  every  gramme  of  nitrogen  excreted  represents 
6  "2  5  grms.  of  protein  consumed. 

The  amount  of  carbohydrate  and  fat  will,  of  course,  ^*|°™ 
vary  with  the  climate  and  amount  of  work,  but,  let  us  tions. 
assume  a  diet  with  an  allowance  of  2700  calories  per 
day  in  which  there  are  100  grms.,  or  o^  oz.  of  protein. 
This  amounts  to  410  calories,  and  leaves  2290  to  be 
supplied  by  carbohydrate,  fat  or  both.  Accordingly, 
558  grms.,  ie.  18|  oz.  of  carbohydrate  or  255  grms., 
i.e.  8 1  oz.  of  fat,  would  supply  the  deficiency.  But  both 
elements  almost  certainly  enter  into  the  dietary,  and 
the  amount  of  fat  consumed  will  depend  upon  the 
digestive  capacity,  and,  as  it  is  the  more  expensive  of 
the  two,  upon  the  ability  to  purchase  it.  If  100  grms. 
or  3 1  oz.  be  used,  that  would  supply  930  calories,  and 
this,  with  the  410  from  proteid,  would  leave  1360 
calories  to  be  supplied  by  316  grms.,  or  10  oz.  of 
carbohydrate. 

Carbohydrates  are  the  chief  sources  of  muscular  force 
and  fats  of  heat,  so  that  where  a  man  is  well  clad  or  in 
a  warm  climate  very  little  fat  need  be  consumed.  The 
Japanese  prefer  carbohydrates  to  fat,  as  witness  the 
rickshaw  men  who  on  working  days  eat  rice  and  on 
holidays,  fish.  Inhabitants  of  cold  countries,  on  the 
other  hand,  eat  immense  supplies  of  fat,  and  as  much  as 
36  lb.  of  meat  with  a  few  pounds  of  tallow  candle  have 


36        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

been  consumed  by  an  Eskimo  at  one  sitting.  Where  it 
is  well  digested,  a  large  supply  of  fat  should  always  be 
taken,  as  3  oz.  of  fat  are  equal  to  7  oz.  of  carbohydrates, 
and,  as  their  value  as  protein  sparers  is  nearly  equal,  a 
less  bulky  diet  is  necessary.  Cod  liver  oil,  dripping,  milk, 
and  bacon  fat  are  therefore  excellent  foods  for  winter. 

These  amounts  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates  are 
those  generally  recognised  by  scientific  men  to-day,  and 
were  established  by  Voit,  Atwater  and  other  authorities. 
The  labours  of  Professor  Chittenden  at  Yale,  more  fully 
detailed  in  Chapter  X.,  have  thrown  considerable  doubt 
on  Voit's  standard,  and  a  new  school  of  dietitians  has 
arisen  who  adhere  to  what  is  now  called  the  "  low  protein 
standard."  Although  it  in  no  way  lends  its  support  to 
any  particular  sect  or  cult,  it  has  been  hailed  with 
delight  by  the  vegetarian  section  as  in  some  respects  it 
makes  their  doctrines  more  credible.  It  is  found,  for 
example,  that  to  live  on  a  low  protein  diet  an  ex- 
ceptionally small  quantity  of  animal  food  must  be  con- 
sumed, which  the  flesh  abstainer  is  inclined  to  regard  as 
superfluous.  During  a  visit  to  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium 
in  the  early  part  of  this  year  I  had,  as  a  guest  at  this 
institution,  unrivalled  opportunities  of  judging  of  the 
applicability  of  the  low  protein  fleshless  diet.  Six  or 
seven  thousand  guests  or  patients  visit  this  establishment 
annually,  and  in  America  it  is  safe  to  say  that  most  of 
them  have  been  living  on  three  meat  meals  per  day, 
with  the  addition  of  copious  libations  of  coffee,  supple- 
mented in  the  case  of  the  men  by  numerous  cigars  and 
in  many  cases  alcoholic  drinks.  Without  any  pre- 
liminary preparation,  every  inmate  is  at  once  placed  on 
a  low  protein  fleshless  diet,  with  incredibly  few  bad 
results.  There  are  three  meals  per  day — 8  a.m.,  1  p.m., 
and  6  p.m.,  and  for  each  one  a  bill  of  fare  is  provided 


FOOD  (GENERAL) 


37 


of  an  entirely  novel  character.  The  value  of  each  food 
is  not  only  set  forth  in  calories  of  protein,  fat,  and 
carbohydrate,  but  the  weight  of  the  food  and  the 
number  of  "  portions "  served  are  announced.  A 
"  portion  "  is  that  quantity  of  any  food  which  contains 
100  calories  of  food  units,  so  that  if  a  person  be  allowed 
2400  calories  per  day,  eight  "portions"  at  each  of  his 
three  meals  should  provide  them.  The  following  is  a 
sample  bill  of  fare  for  breakfast : — 


Portions 

in 
Serving. 

Calori 

;s  of 

Total 
Weight. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrate. 

Gluten  gruel     . 

1 

17 

2 

81 

6    oz. 

Soft  boiled  eggs 

^ 

26 

42 

n  „ 

Zwieback      .     . 

2h 

23 

54 

173 

2     ,, 

Creamed  potatoes 

li 

11 

46 

68 

3i  „ 

Pecans     .     .     . 

2 

10 

174 

16 

1     ,. 

Apple      .     .     . 

1 

2 

7 

91 

H  „ 

89      - 

i-    325     - 

f     429  =  (843) 

m  „ 

In  this  meal,  therefore,  843  calories  of  food  value 
were  eaten,  and  the  respective  proportions  of  protein, 
fat,  and  carbohydrate  per  cent,  were  about  10,  35,  and 
50  respectively.  At  the  next  two  meals  the  fat  must 
b)e  diminished  and  the  carbohydrate  increased  in  order 
that  the  correct  proportion  of  10,  30,  and  60  may  be 
observed,  and  at  the  test  meal  table  an  attendant  is 
provided  who  assists  the  bewildered  novice  in  arriving 
at  the  correct  ratios.  It  is  calculated  that  on  leaving 
the  institution  quite  95  per  cent,  of  the  patients  return 
to  their  ordinary  diet,  with,  however,  greater  attention  to 
moderation,    simplicity,  and    the    ordinary    rules    of    a 


38        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

hygienic  life,  but  quite  5  per  cent,  are  known  to  adhere 
to  the  flesh-abstaining  diet  for  all  time.  As  this 
system  has  obtained  at  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium  for  the 
last  four  years,  Dr.  J.  H.  Kellogg,  its  respected  super- 
intendent, considers  that  the  safety  and  advantages  of 
the  low  protein  standard  have  been  demonstrated. 

Pkactical  Summaky. 

1.  The  food  of  all  nations  consists  of  the  five  ali- 
mentary principles — protein,  fat,  carbohydrates,  mineral 
salts,  and  water.  Oxygen  as  obtained  from  the  air  is 
the  only  other  item  added  to  our  body. 

2.  Nearly  all  food  is  insoluble.  The  object  of 
digestion  is  to  prepare  the  food  for  absorption  into  the 
blood. 

3.  The  saliva  converts  cooked  starch  into  dextrin 
and  maltose  or  malt  sugar. 

4.  Efficient  mastication  is  a  sovereign  remedy  for 
indigestion,  and  at  the  same  time  reduces  the  quantity 
of  food  necessary  for  nutrition.  It  also  tends  to  the 
diminution  of  the  consumption  of  animal  food  and  the 
increase  of  endurance. 

5.  Saliva  has  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  it  is  therefore 
unwise  to  eat  acids  along  with  starchy  foods. 

6.  The  sight  and  smell  of  food  and  its  pleasant 
flavour  in  the  mouth  induce  a  flow  of  gastric  juice  into 
the  empty  stomach  ;  this  is  called  psychic  or  "  appetite  " 
juice.  Unattractive  or  disagreeable  food  is  therefore 
calculated  to  produce  indigestion. 

7.  Meat  soups  and  well  masticated  bread  are  peptogens, 
i.e.  they  encourage  the  flow  of  gastric  juice. 

8.  The  gastric  juice  only  begins  the  digestion  of 
proteins.     It   has  no   power   over  fats  and  starches,  at 


FOOD  (GENERAL)  39 

least  directly.  The  stomach  does  not  absorb  its  contents 
to  any  extent.  It  is  therefore  only  a  reservoir  for  pre- 
paring the  food  for  propulsion  into  the  intestine. 

9.  The  intestine  completes  the  digestion  of  starch 
and  proteins  and  entirely  deals  with  the  fats,  preparing 
them  for  absorption  into  the  blood. 

10.  Milk  and  honey  are  the  only  two  substances 
primarily  intended  for  food. 

11.  Vegetarianism  is  practised  by  most  of  the  world's 
inhabitants.  It  is  perfectly  practicable  for  most  people, 
but  not  generally  considered  to  be  the  most  efficient 
diet. 

12.  The  only  argument  in  favour  of  vegetarianism 
to-day  is  the  personal  one. 

13.  It  is  generally  considered  that  the  food  should 
consist  of  22^  per  cent,  protein,  22^  per  cent,  fat,  and 
55  per  cent,  carbohydrate. 

14.  Three  and  a  half  ounces  of  water-free  protein, 
the  same  quantity  of  fat,  and  8  or  9  oz.  of  carbohydrates 
should  suit  the  requirements  of  the  average  man. 

15.  Hard  work  requires  an  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  the  food. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FOOD  (SPECIAL). 

LAW  I.  —  '* Eat  three  meals  each  day  of  plain, 
wholesome,  solid,  nourishing  food,  at  or  about 
the  same  time  as  far  as  possible." 

THERE  are  only  two  foods  which  contain  all  the 
alimentary  principles  in  anything  like  the  normal 
proportions,  namely,  milk  and  eggs.  Of  these,  milk  is  the 
only  one  primarily  intended  for  food,  the  growing  chick 
has  to  subsist  on  the  yolk  of  the  egg  until  it  breaks  the 
shell ;  but  eggs  contain  practically  no  carbohydrate. 
Milk  and  Milk  being  therefore  a  typical  natural  food,  used  as 
perties'  ^^^^  ^^  civilised  and  uncivilised  peoples  ahke,  is  worthy 
of  a  little  careful  consideration,  especially  as  it  is  cheap 
and  easily  digested. 

Pawlow  has  pointed  out  that  it  calls  forth  very  little 
energy  for  its  digestion  in  the  way  of  the  gastric  and 
pancreatic  fluids,  and  further,  that  it  requires  no  "  appetite  " 
juice  which  all  other  foods  demand.  An  important 
point  in  its  favour  is  that  twelve  hours  after  it  has  been 
ingested  it  has  only  parted  with  15  per  cent,  of  its 
nitrogen,  whereas  bread  has  given  up  50  per  cent,  of 
its  nitrogen.  Hence  milk  is  a  more  effective,  staying, 
and  economical  food.  Pawlow  suggests  that  a  new 
branch  of    dietetic  experimentation  should    be  initiated 

to  classify  foods    in    accordance  with  their    economical 

40 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  41 

properties.  Dr.  Schwarz,  an  Austrian,  reports  that  at 
the  age  of  forty  he  is  in  the  best  of  health,  and  for 
twenty-seven  years  has  swallowed  absolutely  nothing 
but  three  gallons  of  milk  per  day.  As  the  capacity  of 
the  human  stomach  is  about  three  pints,  this  would 
mean  eight  meals  of  milk  alone. 

Milk  is  by  no  means  easily  tolerated  by  every  person, 
and  in  any  case  is  very  deficient  in  iron,  so  that  anaemia 
is  almost  sure  to  result  from  its  prolonged  administration 
without  alternatives.  The  average  limit  of  endurance 
for  a  sole  milk  diet  is  six  weeks,  and  it  is  seldom  judi- 
cious to  contiQue  it  for  anything  like  this  length  of  time. 
It  has  been  injected  into  the  veins  directly,  and  thus 
easily  utilised  by  the  system  without  any  digestion  in 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  this  is  an  indication  of  its 
extraordinary  ease  of  assimilation.  For  one  who  is 
"  run  down  "  or  exhausted,  the  addition  of  three  or  four 
glasses  of  milk  to  the  ordinary  daily  fare  is  often  of 
great  value.  In  these  cases  an  excellent  method  of 
taking  it  is  to  sip  it  slowly  about  an  hour  before  each " 
meal  and  lie  down  until  the  meal  is  ready.  A  normal 
stomach  an  hour  before  food  should  be  empty  and 
contain  no  acid  to  coagulate  the  milk. 

A  great  drawback  to  the  use  of  milk  is  its  constipat- 
ing effect,  and  this  is  much  increased  by  boiling  it.  It 
contains  much  more  lime  than  lime  water,  and,  as  this 
exists  in  the  form  of  phosphate  of  lime,  not  only  does 
boiling  increase  its  proportion  by  a  loss  of  the  watery 
part,  but  by  a  dissociation  of  its  elements,  so  that  lime 
water  is  actually  formed.  This  lime  is,  however,  valuable 
for  children,  and  where  milk  is  badly  tolerated  it  may 
be  rendered  more  digestible  by  the  addition  of  citrate  of 
soda  in  the  proportion  of  one  grain  to  an  ounce. 

The  composition  of  cow's  milk  is  in  round  figures : — 


42        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Water,  87*0  ;  protein,  4'0  ;  fats,  4'0  ;  sugar,  4*5  ;  salts, 
0-5.— Total,  100. 

The  solids  of  milk  consist  of  proteins  of  two  kinds 
(caseinogen  and  lactalbumen),  fats  and  carbohydrates 
(lactose  or  milk  sugar),  and  mineral  salts — chiefly 
phosphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  potash,  and  chlorides 
of  sodium  and  potash.  When  living  on  cow's  milk 
alone,  to  obtain  the  requisite  quantity  of  carbohydrates, 
about  nine  pints  require  to  be  taken  daily,  and  this 
would  give  far  too  much  water,  fat,  and  protein.  The 
advantage  of  food  combinations  is  therefore  apparent 
even  when  dealing  with  what  is  looked  upon  as  a  com- 
plete food.  Three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  bread  and 
three  pints  of  milk  would  make  a  well-balanced 
nutritious  diet  capable  of  being  easily  dealt  with  by  the 
stomach  in  two  or  even  three  meals. 

Milk  is  not  completely  absorbed  from  the  intestine. 
Children  digest  it  better  than  adults,  for  the  residue  is 
4  per  cent,  in  the  former  and  as  much  as  10  per  cent, 
in  the  latter.  It  has  been  ascertained  after  careful  and 
.  continuous  measurements  that  children  between  thirteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age  grow  four  times  as  fast  on  a 
diet  containing  milk,  as  on  one  containing  an  equal 
quantity  of  tea  or  coffee. 

Skim  milk,  it  should  be  noted,  contains  all  the  nutri- 
ment of  fresh  milk,  with  the  exception  of  cream  or  fat, 
and,  as  this  can  easily  be  supplied  by  a  cheaper  fat,  it 
should  be  conserved  and  used  as  human  food  instead  of 
being  allotted  to  pigs  or  even  as  in  some  cities  poured 
down  the  gutter. 

Cream  contains  most  of  the  fats  of  milk,  and  has 
close  upon  ten  different  fatty  constituents.  Amongst 
them  is  lecithin,  a  phosphorised  fat  existing  in  the 
human  brain.     There  should  be  about  20   per  cent,  of 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  43 

fat  in  cream,  but  as  much  as  65  per  cent,  can  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  a  separator.  Cream  is  not  only 
one  of  the  most  easily  digested  fats,  but  contains  as  much 
protein  and  sugar  of  milk  as  milk  does,  the  fat  indeed 
only  replacing  some  of  the  water  contained  in  the  latter. 
One  pint  of  cream  is  of  greater  caloric  food  value  than 
four  quarts  of  milk. 

Butter  is  produced  from  cream  by  churning,  the 
albuminous  envelopes  of  the  fat  globules  being  thus 
broken  and  the  fat  particles  permitted  to  commingle  and 
form  a  solid  mass. 

Cheese  is  a  product  of  milk  containing  its  casein  and 
fat.  The  casein  is  precipitated  by  coagulating  milk  with 
rennet  or  simply  allowing  it  to  sour.  The  whey  is  then 
allowed  to  separate  and  salt  is  added  to  the  curdled 
casein  and  fat.  When  it  is  kept  for  a  long  time  cheese 
"ripens,"  and  the  curd  or  casein  again  becomes  soluble 
in  water.  Its  composition  is  approximately  one-third 
water,  one-third  protein,  one-third  fat.  A  cheese  weigh- 
ing 20  lb.  contains  as  much  nourishment  as  a  whole 
sheep  weighing  60  lb.,  because  flesh  contains  quite 
70  per  cent,  of  water.  Its  chief  drawback  is  the 
great  difficulty  many  people  find  in  digesting  it,  because 
its  fat  surrounds  the  particles  of  casein  like  an  envelope, 
and  prevents  the  gastric  juice  from  coming  readily  into 
contact  with  them.  To  promote  its  digestion  it  ought 
to  be  grated  or  eaten  as  in  Scotland  with  oat-cake,  which 
combination  produces  a  complete  diet.  The  addition  of 
a  small  amount  of  bicarbonate  of  potash  will  easily 
dissolve  it,  and  by  adding  milk  and  eggs  to  this  solu- 
tion a  savoury  and  highly  nutritious  dish  can  be  pre- 
pared. 

The  addition  to  milk  of  water,  cream,  and  milk  sugar 
is  often  necessary  to  make  it  more  digestible,  especially 


44        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

in  the  case  of  infants,  and  tliis  process  is  called  "  human- 
ising "  it. 

Koumiss  is  a  fermented  preparation  of  mare's  milk, 
and  has  been  used  for  many  hundreds  of  years  in 
Eastern  Europe. 

Kephyr  is  a  preparation  of  the  same  kind  made  from 
cow's  or  goat's  milk.  A  little  piece  of  the  kephyr 
ferment — or,  what  is  more  usual,  a  little  sugar  and  yeast 
— is  added  to  the  milk,  and  certain  changes  take  place 
therein.  A  part  of  the  sugar  is  converted  iii'to  lactic 
acid,  another  part  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  and 
even  the  fat  is  converted  partially  into  butyric  acid. 
These  acids  precipitate  the  casein  in  fine  particles,  and 
by  constant  agitation  they  become  still  finer  and  gradu- 
ally undergo  partial  digestion.  The  result  is  a  sour, 
effervescent,  weakly  alcoholic  milk  costing  about  one 
shilling  per  champagne  quart.  One  pint  of  this  may 
be  taken  each  day,  gradually  increasing  until  seven  pints 
per  day  are  taken,  and  it  is  held  in  high  repute  as  a 
treatment  for  inflammation  of  the  colon  both  in  children 
and  adults. 
TheLacto-  Probably,  in  this  country  at  least,  the  kephyr  and 
Treat-^^  koumiss  cures  will  speedily  lapse  into  oblivion  on 
ment.  account  of  the  introduction  of  the  treatment  of  in- 
testinal and  other  affections  by  butter-milk  or  lacto- 
bacilline. 

Butter-milk  is  the  residue  after  butter  is  made  from 
cream,  and  contains,  besides  water,  2|  per  cent,  protein, 
1  per  cent,  fat,  3 1  per  cent,  of  sugar,  w^ith  a  great  deal 
of  lactic  acid  which  has  been  formed  from  the  sugar.  It 
is  largely  consumed  by  the  peasantry  of  Scotland  and 
Bulgaria, — in  the  former  country  being  usually  eaten  with 
oatmeal  porridge  or  used  as  a  beverage  during  harvesting 
and  other  agricultural  operations.     The  large  proportion 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  45 

of  centenarians  in  Bulgaria  is  attributed  to  its  use  as  a 
daily  article  of  diet. 

As  butter-milk  is  not  easily  obtained  in  a  city,  the 
lactic  acid  bacilli  can  now  be  procured  in  compressed 
tablet  form  or  added  to  fresh  milk  in  the  form  of  a 
powder  which,  under  the  influence  of  heat,  soon  converts  it 
into  what  is  now  known  as  "  soured  "  or  "  curdled  "  milk. 

Curdled  milk  has  been  used  from  time  immemorial 
in  Eastern  Europe  as  an  article  of  diet,  and  thirty  or 
forty  years  ago  was  much  in  vogue  in  France.  It  is 
therefore  the  revival  of  an  old  treatment,  and  owes  its 
present  popularity  to  Metchnikoff,  the  director  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris.  In  casting  about  in  his 
mind  for  the  cause  of  old  age  he  was  struck  with  the 
longevity  of  birds  possessing  no  colon,  and,  being  at  the 
same  time  in  Bulgaria,  where  he  noted  the  regular  use 
of  curdled  milk  by  its  many  centenarian  inhabitants,  he 
associated  these  two  facts.  Whilst  investigating  the 
causation  of  cholera,  he  had  discovered  that  the  intestines 
of  the  ordinary  healthy  man  always  contained  a  great 
number  of  varieties  of  bacteria.  Some  of  these — called 
proteolytes,  because  they  lived  on  the  protein  contents 
of  the  bowel — were  found  to  be  dangerous,  forming 
poisons  which  when  absorbed  were  harmful  to  the  body ; 
and  others — called  saccharolytes,  because  they  lived  on 
the  starch,  sugar,  and  dextrin — are  beneficial  because 
they  hinder  the  development  of  these  harmful  germs. 
It  was  found  that  the  proteolytes  or  harmful  germs 
predominated  in  the  colon,  and  he  knew  well  that  an 
acid  environment  was  inimical  to  the  development  of 
these  harmful  microbes.  He  therefore  con"cluded  that 
the  lactic  acid  bacilli  which  are  saccharolytes,  in  the 
curdled  milk  or  yoghourt,  as  it  is  called  in  Bulgaria, 
prevented  the  growth  of  the  hostile  micro-organisms  in 


46        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  colon.  Just  at  this  time  Bouchard  was  preaching 
the  doctrine  of  auto-intoxication,  and  declaring  that 
salvation  lay  in  gastro-intestinal  antisepsis,  i.e.  in  killing 
the  microbes  of  the  digestive  tube. 

The  scientific  world  was  therefore  thunderstruck  at  the 
appearance  of  Metchnikoff's  great  work  on  the  utility 
of  many  of  these  intestinal  microbes,  but  his  doctrine 
stood  the  proof  of  experiment  and  he  demonstrated  that 
chickens  reared  as  far  as  possible  without  intestinal 
microbes  languished  and  died,  whereas  others  fed  in  the 
same  way — though  with  a  full  supply  of  intestinal 
microbes — came  to  perfect  development.  Thus  in  1901 
he  established  the  fact  that  the  microbes  of  the  human 
intestine  constitute  for  the  most  part  a  harmful  flora ; 
that  these  microbes  by  their  poisonous  excretions 
exercise  a  toxic  eftect  on  the  organism,  and  that  this 
toxic  irritation  causes  an  increase  in  the  connective  tissue 
of  the  organs  and  blood  vessels,  setting  up  sclerosis  and 
finally  senile  decay. 

This  is  the  new  doctrine  of  auto-intoxication  or  self- 
poisoning,  and  is  the  new  theory  of  the  causation  of 
practically  all  chronic  complaints.  The  remedy  for  this 
state  of  affairs  is  to  inhibit  the  growth  of  the  harmful 
microbes  by  transforming  this  wild  and  noxious  intestinal 
flora  into  a  well  cultivated  one,  rich  in  lactic  acid  ferments. 
Curdled  milk  is  not  only  the  best  method  of  effecting 
this  transformation,  but  is  at  the  same  time  a  food 
material  of  the  first  order.  It  is  therefore  at  present 
in  great  favour  as  a  very  valuable  article  of  diet,  being 
a  complete  food  easy  to  digest,  a  powerful  diuretic  {i.e.  a 
kidney  flusher),  a  convenient  laxative,  and  a  tonic  for  the 
nervous  system.  At  any  rate,  this  is  what  is  claimed  for  it 
by  enthusiasts,  but  after  some  experience  I  cannot  speak 
of  it  in  such  enraptured  terms.     It  is  certainly  better 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  47 

than  kephyr  or  koumiss,  because  it  is  more  nourishing 
and  contains  no  alcohol,  itself  a  strong  agency  in  the 
promotion  of  senile  decay.  It  must  be  carefully  noted 
that  in  those  countries  where  the  use  of  soured  milk  is 
supposed  to  be  conducive  to  longevity  there  are  other 
powerful  factors  in  operation.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  an  open-air  life  with  considerable  muscular 
exercise  and  extreme  moderation  and  simplicity  of  diet. 
Those  people,  therefore,  who  begin  to  practise  the  soured 
milk  cure  and  still  continue  their  dietetic  indiscretions 
must  be  prepared  for  disastrous  results.  Colic,  diarrhoea, 
and  vomiting  have  resulted  from  the  indiscriminate  use 
of  lactic  acid  ferments,  and  even  gout  and  rheumatism 
have  been  initiated  or  precipitated  by  excessive  or 
injudicious  medication  with  them.  To  obtain  satisfactory 
results  the  whole  life  must  be  ordered  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  moderation  and  simplicity  practised  in 
Bulgaria  and  other  countries. 

The  method  of  preparation  of  curdled  milk  has  been 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  almost  universal  use  of  tablets, 
marketed  under  various  names  and  containing  active 
lactic  acid  bacilli.  One  of  the  most  convenient  forms  is 
prepared  by  Messrs.  Allen  &  Hanbury  and  called 
"  Sauerin,"  and  in  many  cases  it  is  quite  sufficient  to  add 
two  or  three  crushed  "  Sauerin "  tablets  with  a  little 
sugar  to  a  tumblerful  of  milk  and  take  this  two  or  three 
times  a  day.  By  this  means  the  curdled  milk  with  its 
increasing  host  of  lactic  acid  bacilli  is  prepared  in  the 
intestinal  canal  itself.  It  is  highly  probable,  however, 
that  in  a  sensitive  person  a  considerable  degree  of 
discomfort  may  be  developed,  so,  to  obviate  this,  it  is 
well  to  prepare  the  curdled  milk  and  take  it  in  convenient 
quantities  throughout  the  day.  This  can  easily  be  done 
by  pouring  a  pint  of  freshly  boiled  milk  into  a  jug. 
4 


48        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Allow  it  to  cool  to  a  temperature  of  100°-105°F. 
Add  three  or  four  tablets  of  "  Sauerin "  crushed  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  cane  sugar  or  sugar  of  milk  and  mix 
well.  Cover  the  vessel  and  maintain  the  same  tempera- 
ture for  from  eight  to  twelve  hours,  or  until  curdling  takes 
place.  When  it  is  ready  for  consumption  one  tumblerful 
of  this  cm^dled  milk  may  be  taken  on  rising,  another  in 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  another  at  tea  time  instead 
of  tea,  and  a  fourth  at  bed  time.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  take  it  at  meal  times,  as,  in  common  with  all  forms 
of  milk,  it  is  liable  to  upset  the  digestion. 

Eennet,  which  is  prepared  from  the  mucous  membrane 
of  a  calf's  stomach  and  contains  pepsinogen  and  rennin, 
also  coagulates  the  casein  of  milk,  but  without  the  pro- 
duction of  lactic  acid. 
The  De-  The  eggs  of  the  domestic  fowl  are  another  example  of 

^a„s.  a  complete  food,  as  they  contain  some  of  all  the  alimentary 
principles.  It  is  a  very  ill-balanced  food,  however,  as 
there  is  too  little  carbohydrate,  so  that  bread  and  butter 
eaten  with  eggs  is  a  very  natural  supplement.  Each 
egg  contains  7  grms.,  or  about  one-fifth  of  an  ounce  of 
protein,  so  that,  if  taken  alone,  sixteen  would  be  required 
for  a  day's  ration.  The  average  weight  of  an  egg  is 
about  1^  oz.,  and  its  food  value  about  70  calories. 
One-tenth  is  shell,  six-tenths  is  white  of  egg  or  pure 
egg  albumin,  and  three-tenths  is  yolk.  Ten  per  cent,  of 
an  egg  is  fat,  and  this  is  entirely  contained  in  the  yolk, 
along  with  nuclein,  cholesterin,  and  lecithin,  all  highly 
phosphorised  ingredients. 

Eaw  eggs  are  very  bland,  and  quickly  leave  the 
stomach  in  an  unchanged  condition  without  exciting 
secretion  or  motion.  If  taken  fasting,  therefore,  they 
should  be  quickly  utilised  as  food  without  the  risk  of 
indigestion.     Only  a  residue  of  5  per  cent,  is  undigested. 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  49 

They  may  be  taken  raw  with  a  little  pepper  and  salt,  or 
whipped  up  in  beef  tea,  coffee,  or  milk.  Another  method 
is  to  whip  up  an  egg  with  a  little  lemon  juice  and  add 
some  sugar  and  dilute  with  water  or  seltzogene.  Brandy, 
rum,  or  wine  may  be  added  to  the  yolk  of  an  egg  whipped 
up  with  milk  and  flavoured  with  a  little  sugar. 

The  flesh  of  domesticated  or  wild  animals  and  birds  The 
forms  the  most  important  source  of  the  protein  food  of  po^^of 
mankind.  Meat. 

Meaty  flavours  are  strongly  peptogenic,  being  valuable 
stimulants  to  the  whole  digestive  process,  although  raw 
flesh  well  masticated  is  more  easily  digested  than  when 
cooked. 

riesh  is,  of  course,  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  animal, 
and  its  chief  constituents  are  the  contractile  muscle 
substance  called  myosin,  some  fat  and  connective  tissue 
or  gristle  and  extractives.  These  extractives  are  un- 
questionably to  a  large  extent  waste  matters,  probably 
fatigue  products  of  the  active  muscular  tissue  during 
life,  and  are  chiefly  acid,  containing  kreatin,  kreatinin, 
sarcolactic  acid,  uric  acid,  etc.  Speaking  generally,  all 
flesh  consists  of  about  75  per  cent,  of  water  and  25  per 
cent,  of  solid  matter,  with  an  average  content  of  18 
per  cent,  of  protein.  The  flesh  of  birds  contains  the  most 
protein,  then  follows  that  of  mammals,  fishes  containing 
least  of  all.  Flesh  contains  practically  no  carbohydrates, 
although,  if  kept  sufficiently  long,  a  chemical  trans- 
formation takes  place  whereby  a  little  sugar  is  formed. 

Cooking  effects  several  changes  in  meat.  The  colour 
is  altered,  rendering  it  more  agreeable  to  the  eye,  the 
flavour  is  improved,  there  is  a  slight  loss  of  water,  fat, 
and  extractives,  and  the  connective  tissue  binding  the 
fibres  together  is  dissolved,  so  that  the  digestive  juices 
more  readily  attack  them. 


50        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

When  meat  is  placed  in  cold  water  and  the  temperature 
raised  gradually,  much  of  the  extractive  or  flavouring 
matter,  some  of  the  salts  and  muscle  juice  are  dissolved 
out,  and  by  degrees  the  fibres  are  entirely  separated. 
This  is  the  process  called  stewing,  the  resultant  mass 
containing  all  the  nutriment  of  the  meat,  and  being  a 
savoury  and  easily  digested  dish. 

Boiling  is  effected  by  plunging  the  piece  of  meat  into 
boiling  water,  and  so  sealing  the  juices  by  coagulating 
the  albumin  of  the  superficial  fibres.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  should  then  be  lowered  about  30°  F.,  and  the 
cooking  completed. 

Meat  is  roasted  by  being  placed  in  a  very  hot  oven, 
whereby  the  superficial  fibres  are  rapidly  coagulated  and 
the  escape  of  the  juices  is  prevented.  The  fat  and 
extractives  which  accumulate  in  the  dish  are  poured 
over  the  cooking  mass  at  intervals,  which  continues  the 
beneficial  process  and  induces  chemical  changes  that 
modify  the  flavours.  Broiling  or  grilling  is  performed 
on  a  grid  or  over  the  open  fire.  Frying  is  the  least 
satisfactory  method  of  cooking  meat.  If,  however,  the 
meat  is  completely  immersed  in  hot  boiling  oil  a  satis- 
factory result  is  likely  to  be  obtained. 

Fresh  meat  is  less  savoury  than  when  kept  for  some 
time  in  a  cool  place.  The  albumin  partly  coagulates 
and  becomes  more  soluble  because  of  the  formation  of 
lactic  acid. 

The  digestibility  of  the  different  forms  of  meat  varies. 
Beef,  as  containing  the  longest  muscular  fibres,  is  the 
most  difl&cult  to  digest,  and,  when  properly  cooked,  pork, 
which  contains  the  shortest  muscular  fibres,  is  the  easiest. 
When,  however,  the  fibres  are  coated  with  fat,  badly 
masticated,  and  eaten  with  too  many  accompaniments, 
they  are  apt  to  disagree,  especially  with  those  who  have 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  51 

an  intolerance  for  fat.  Mutton  and  lamb  are  more 
tender  than  beef.  All  these  are  well  mingled  with  fat, 
and  should  be  eaten  alone.  Chicken,  turkey,  and 
pheasant  are  almost  devoid  of  fat,  and  require  an 
accompaniment  of  bacon  or  sausage. 

When  any  of  these  meats  are  to  be  eaten  cold,  it  is 
better  that  they  should  be  specially  cooked,  not  even  a 
fork  being  inserted  into  the  flesh  whilst  cooking.  They 
should  then  be  left  untouched  until  quite  cold,  when 
they  will  be  found  infinitely  more  juicy  and  appetising 
than  if  cut  whilst  still  hot  and  the  remnant  eaten  as 
cold  viands. 

A  great  deal  of  misunderstanding  still  exists  in  the  Truth 
minds  of  the  public  with  regard  to  what  is  called  beef  gggf  j-gg, 
tea.  It  is  a  popular  mistake  to  credit  it  with  nourishing 
properties,  and  there  is  still  a  great  predilection  in 
favour  of  its  consumption  by  invalids.  As  originally  pre- 
pared by  Liebig  and  even  now  in  most  households,  it  is 
entirely  composed  of  the  extractives  of  meat,  with  perhaps 
a  small  modicum  of  its  nutriment,  about  1  per  cent,  of 
protein,  to  be  exact.  Liebig  never  at  any  time  pressed 
its  claims  as  a  nutrient,  and  long  ago  some  very  con- 
vincing experiments  were  made  which  demonstrated  its 
worthlessness  for  this  purpose.  The  most  notable  of 
these  was  conducted  on  three  healthy  dogs  of  about  the 
same  weight  and  vigour,  each  being  fed  under  careful 
observation  in  the  following  manner.  To  one  was  given 
a  large  supply  of  the  best  home-made  beef  tea,  to  another 
was  given  nothing  but  water,  and  the  third  was  permitted 
to  swallow  the  small  cubes  of  meat  left  over  after  the 
preparation  of  the  aforesaid  beef  tea  and  a  small  supply 
of  water.  The  dog  fed  on  the  beef  tea  quickly  died  with 
symptoms  of  toxic  poisoning,  the  dog  restricted  to  pure 
water  lived  for  some  seventy  days,  whilst  at  the  end  of 


52        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

two  years  No.  3  dog  was  in  the  best  of  health  and  still 
revelling  in  his  wliolesome  diet  of  what  the  public  have 
always  looked  upon  as  innutritions  refuse.  Truly  a 
drastic  demonstration  of  the  folly  of  trusting  to  the 
nourishing  properties  of  beef  tea  ! 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  this  beverage 
is  worthless.  It  is  the  rule  to  find  that  a  patient  is 
unable  to  take  much  nourishment  during  an  acute  illness, 
and  to  most  of  them  milk,  which  is  usually  recommended, 
is  repulsive.  The  digestion  is  impaired,  the  appetite  is 
bad,  the  tongue  is  furred,  and  there  is  no  desire  for  food, 
whereas  there  is  nothing  repellent  about  a  hot,  clear, 
non-clogging  and  stimulating  fluid  like  beef  tea.  The 
truth  is,  the  patient  is  better  without  any  food  until  the 
digestive  functions  are  resumed,  and  the  use  of  beef  tea 
procures  the  starvation  which  is  so  necessary,  and  satis- 
fies the  patient's  friends — who  have  an  inexplicable 
dread  of  absence  of  food — that  wholesome  nourishment 
is  being  taken.  But  beef  tea  has  likewise  a  positive 
value  in  that  it  whets  the  appetite  and  excites  the 
stomach  to  greater  work,  so  that  with  the  addition  of 
white  of  egg,  bread,  crackers,  or  rice  an  agreeable  diet 
is  obtained.  As  an  explanation  of  its  stimulating 
qualities.  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  has  suggested  that  beef  tea 
contains  an  antitoxic  substance  which  antagonises  the 
toxins  of  fatigue.  This  hypothesis  is  credible,  but  analysis 
and  experiment  will  be  necessary  to  establish  its  truth. 

Beef  tea  and  beef  juice  vary  somewhat  in  their  com- 
position, the  latter  containing  sometimes  a  decided 
amount  of  nourishment.  To  make  a  nourishing  beef 
tea  or  juice,  the  following  instructions  should  be 
followed.  Cut  half  a  pound  of  lean  meat  into  small 
pieces,  place  in  a  jar  and  add  about  ten  tablespoonfuls 
or    so  of    water    between    105°   and    120°  F.,    i.e.    just 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  S3 

sufficiently  hot  for  the  back  of  the  hand  to  bear.  Place 
the  jar  in  a  saucepan  of  water  at  the  same  temperature. 
Place  on  a  stool  in  front  of  the  fire  so  that  this  tempera- 
ture is  maintained  for  two  hours,  stirring  the  mass  every 
five  minutes.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  strain  through 
a  piece  of  strong  muslin  and  thoroughly  squeeze  out 
the  juice,  leaving  nothing  but  dry  fibre.  Flavour  with 
tomato  or  any  other  desirable  agency,  and  consume 
within  six  hours  from  the  time  of  preparation. 

Having  thus  dealt  with  the  foods  of  animal  origin,  Vegetable 
we  must  shortly  turn  our  attention  to  the  great  class  of  "  ^^^' 
vegetable  foods,  which  form  the  chief  food  supply  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  They 
possess  certain  broad  characteristics  in  which  they  differ 
from  animal  foods:  (1)  they  contain  more  water;  (2) 
they  contain  a  larger  amount  of  starch  and  sugar ;  (3) 
they  contain  a  smaller  proportion  of  protein  and  fat. 
They  are  therefore  more  bulky,  and  more  of  them  must 
be  eaten  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  system.  In 
addition  to  this,  however,  the  protein  content  is  not  so 
easily  utilised  as  that  of  animal  foods,  because,  being — 
like  starch — contained  in  cells,  it  is  unable  to  burst  its 
envelope  of  cellulose,  which,  except  in  a  very  young 
fresh  condition,  is  almost  indigestible.  Cooking  causes 
starch  grains  to  swell  and  burst  their  cell  wall,  whereas 
protein  only  shrinks  on  the  application  of  heat.  It  is 
only  after  being  ground  to  a  fine  powder  by  artificial 
means  that  vegetable  protein  can  be  digested  and  ab- 
sorbed as  easily  as  animal  protein. 

A  mixed  diet  with  a  ratio  of  one  part  food  of  animal 
origin  to  three  parts  food  of  vegetable  origin  is  a  prac- 
tical and  satisfactory  balance  for  the  normal  subject.  In 
cities,  however,  there  are  many  people,  accustomed  to 
sedentary  occupations,  whose  digestive  organs,  rendered 


54       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


"White  or 
Brown 
Bread  ? 


weak  by  lack  of  physical  exercise,  are  incapable  of 
dealing  with  this  proportion  of  bulky  food,  and  who  are 
compelled,  for  the  sake  of  comfort,  to  eat  a  larger 
quantity  of  animal  food — often  amounting  to  a  full 
half  of  the  total.  The  result  is  that  they  have  a  greater 
tendency  to  the  development  of  gout,  rheumatism,  and 
nervous  disorders  than  country  people. 

The  fats  and  carbohydrates  of  vegetable  foods  are 
easily  digested  and  assimilated.  The  latter  consists  of 
sugars,  starches,  and  cellulose.  Sugars  are  soluble, 
starches  become  so  by  cooking,  even  dry  heat  converting 
them  into  dextrin,  but  cellulose  remains  quite  insoluble 
even  after  cooking.  It  constitutes  the  ballast,  and  in 
brown  bread,  green  vegetables,  fruits  and  nuts,  assists  in 
correcting  constipation. 

The  most  common  sugars  have  been  mentioned  in 
Chapter  I.  page  4.  To  these  must  be  added  a  sixth,  viz., 
invertose  or  invert  sugar  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
Isevulose  and  glucose.  Cane  sugar  is  now  obtained 
largely  from  beetroot.  Maple  sugar  has  a  similar 
composition.  Honey  contains  grape  and  fruit  sugar. 
Syrup  and  treacle  are  simply  coarse  forms  of  cane 
sugar. 

Sugar  is  agreeable  to  taste,  induces  the  consumption 
of  more  food,  gives  strength  to  the  muscles  and  helps  to 
lay  down  fat.  Large  quantities  produce  alcohol  and 
irritant  acids  in  the  bowels  from  fermentation.  Fruits 
and  milk  contain  about  5  per  cent.,  and  this  is  the 
dilution  which  is  most  suitable  for  consumption. 

The  comprehensive  name  of  "  cereals "  includes  all 
the  grains  used  for  food.  They  contain  mineral  salts, 
starch,  fat,  a  protein  called  gluten  and  a  little  cellulose. 
They  are  usually  ground  down  before  being  used  as  food. 
The  outer  or  husky  layer  is  called  the  bran,  which  is 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  55 

removed  by  milling,  as  is  also  what  is  called  the  germ. 
This  is  unfortunate,  because  the  latter  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  fat  and  protein,  but  it  is  apt  to  spoil  the 
flour  on  account  of  its  fatty  content.  Their  composition 
is  somewhat  as  follows: — Water,  14"5  per  cent.; 
protein,  11"0  per  cent.;  fat,  I'O  percent.;  starch  and 
sugar,  69 '0  percent.;  cellulose,  2-5  per  cent.;  mineral 
matter,  2*0  per  cent.  Flour  contains  a  little  more 
starch  and  a  little  less  protein  than  rice.  Oatmeal 
contains  a  little  more  protein  and  fat  than  this. 

The  simplest  way  of  using  flour  is  by  baking  it  with 
a  little  water.  In  this  way  ship  biscuits  are  made,  but 
they  are  too  hard  and  difficult  to  digest.  For  this 
reason  a  more  advanced  process  is  employed  by  adding 
yeast  and  setting  it  aside  in  a  warm  place.  The  yeast 
cells  grow,  converting  some  of  the  starch  into  sugar, 
then  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  fills  the 
dough  with  bubbles,  and  the  finished  product  is  called 
bread.  The  fermentation  ceases  when  the  bread  is 
ready.  The  yeast  is  killed,  and  most  of  the  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid  driven  off.  As  there  is  some  loss  in  this 
process  of  manufacture,  other  methods  have  been  em- 
ployed, e.g.  gas  may  be  forced  into  the  dough  under 
pressure.  This  is  the  aerated  process.  Or  baking 
powders,  which  when  wetted  liberate  carbonic  acid  gas, 
may  be  employed. 

Toasting  increases  the  digestibility  of  bread,  but 
ordinary  toast  is  inferior  to  zwieback.  This  is  prepared 
by  cutting  the  bread  into  moderate  slices  and  placing 
them  on  their  edge  in  the  oven  or  other  dry  warm  place 
until  they  are  dried  or  cooked  through  and  through.  In 
this  state  they  compel  mastication  and  insalivation  in 
people  who  are  too  careless  to  attend  to  these  processes 
otherwise. 


56        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Whole-meal  bread  is  theoretically  more  nutritious; 
because  it  contains  less  starch  and  more  protein  than 
white  bread,  and  a  great  deal  more  husky  fibre  or 
cellulose.  Its  nutriment  is,  however,  so  combined  with 
indigestible  material  that  it  is  most  difficult  of  absorption, 
and  hence  a  great  proportion  of  it  is  cast  off  in  the 
fffices.  White  bread  leaves  4|  per  cent,  of  its  residue 
in  the  bowel,  whereas  brown  bread  leaves  as  much  as  14 
per  cent.  Many  people  persist  in  eating  brown  bread 
under  the  impression  that  it  is  good  for  indigestion,  and 
frequently  perpetuate  a  chronic  gastric  catarrh  which 
would  speedily  disappear  were  they  to  cease  using  it. 
Probably  in  a  considerable  number  of  cases  it  is  of  value 
as  a  laxative,  but  even  in  this  respect  its  good  qualities 
have  been  overestimated,  as  it  is  just  as  likely  to  set 
up  irritation  in  the  bowel  as  in  the  stomach. 

Bread  made  from  good  malted  white  flour  is  infinitely 
to  be  preferred,  as  much  of  its  insoluble  starch  is  con- 
verted into  maltose  and  dextrin,  and  these  are  much  more 
readily  and  thoroughly  absorbed  into  the  blood. 

Eice  contains  practically  no  fat  and  very  little  pro- 
tein, although  the  product  called  "  unpolished,"  which  is 
eaten  by  the  Japanese,  has  quite  as  much  protein  as 
flour  and  is  quite  as  nutritious. 
Roots  and  Eoots  and  tubers  are  largely  used  as  articles  of  diet, 
Foods.  ^^^  consist  chiefly  of  starch  and  sugar.  The  potato, 
which  is  most  valuable,  contains  only  18  per  cent,  of 
starch,  and  is  hence  much  used  by  diabetics  in  preference 
to  wh eaten  flour.  Onions  are  greatly  prized  for  their 
medicinal  qualities,  acting  as  laxatives,  expectorants,  and 
as  incentives  to  a  good  complexion.  Tapioca,  arrowroot, 
and  sago  are  prepared  from  roots,  and  are  almost  pure 
starches. 

Peas,  beans,  and  lentils  are  amongst  the  most  nutritious 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  57 

of  food  products.  Their  average  composition  is : — 
Water,  1 0  per  cent. ;  protein,  2  5  per  cent. ;  fat,  1  per 
cent. ;  carbohydrates,  60  per  cent. ;  ash,  4  per  cent. — 
Total,  100  per  cent.  They  are,  however,  most  difficult 
of  digestion  and  absorption,  quite  as  much  as  40  per 
cent,  of  their  protein  being  unabsorbed  when  cooked  by 
simple  boiling.  When  ground  into  a  fine  flour  or 
prepared  as  a  puree  they  are  much  more  thoroughly 
digested  and  absorbed,  although  their  food  value  is  not 
so  great  as  one  would  expect,  as  only  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  them  can  be  utilised  by  most  people. 

Green  vegetables  are  chiefly  used  because  of  the 
mineral  salts  which  they  convey  to  the  system  in  a 
natural  form.  For  this  reason  they  should  be  cooked 
by  a  steaming  process,  as  the  French  do,  and  not  boiled 
as  in  this  country,  when  their  valuable  saline  constitu- 
ents are  lost.  They  are  not  easily  digested  by  many 
people,  although  cauliflower,  celery,  and  asparagus  when 
cooked  should  agree  with  almost  any  one.  Lettuce  and 
tomatoes  are  the  only  vegetables  which  should  be  eaten 
raw.  Their  functions  in  the  body  may  be  epitomised 
as  (1)  laxative;  (2)  solvent  of  deposited  foreign  matter 
such  as  uric  acid  salts ;  (3)  nutritious  to  the  bones  and 
teeth.  In  a  general  way  they  may  be  classed  as  blood 
purifiers,  and  used  as  such. 

Fruits  may  be  divided  into:  (1)  flavour  fruits,  (2)  Fruits, 
food  fruits.  The  former  contain  little  but  water,  salts  YmA  ^^^ 
and  fruit  acids,  with  a  little  sugar.  The  latter,  amongst 
which  are  comprised  the  fig,  date,  prune,  raisin,  when 
dried,  possess  decided  nutritive  qualities,  having  as 
much  as  5  per  cent,  of  protein  and  60  per  cent,  of 
starch  in  their  composition.  Like  vegetables  they  are 
(1)  laxative,  (2)  antiscorbutic,  (3)  diuretic,  (4)  pepto- 
genic,  (5)  nutritive,  (6)  diluent  and  demulcent.     Bananas 


58        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

are  the  most  nutritious  raw  fruit,  and,  when  dried  and 
ground,  a  meal  is  prepared  which  has  the  same  value 
as  rice.  The  banana  is  easily  digested,  and  contains 
little  or  no  starch,  but  an  abundance  of  sugar. 

Nuts  are  rapidly  coming  into  favour  as  highly  nutri- 
tious, and,  when  properly  prepared,  easily  digested 
articles  of  diet.  They  contain  an  average  of  20  per 
cent,  of  protein,  50  per  cent,  of  fat,  and  20  per  cent,  of 
starch.  If  the  husk  can  be  removed,  as  in  almonds  by 
blanching,  and  they  are  carefully  ground  into  powder  by 
a  nut  mill,  they  may  be  eaten  with  impunity  by  most 
people.  When  eaten  without  being  ground,  however, 
they  are  apt  to  disagree  with  almost  any  one,  as  they 
are  most  difficult  to  digest.  Where  they  form  the 
principal  portion  of  the  diet,  as  with  the  fruitarians  or 
vegetarians,  it  is  preferable  that  they  be  carefully  pre- 
pared by  experts  either  in  the  form  of  butter  or  a 
cooked  food  resembhng  minced  meat. 

Fungi  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  protein,  but 
they  are  most  indigestible  on  account  of  the '  large 
quantity  of  cellulose  they  possess.  Irish  moss,  Iceland 
moss,  and  Japanese  seaweed  or  agar-agar  belong  to  the 
same  category. 

Spices  and  condiments  possess  no  nutritive  value,  but 
are  used  as  relishes,  and  are  supposed  to  aid  digestion 
by  stimulating  the  organs  to  pour  forth  more  gastric 
fluids.  But  as  this  is  chiefly  mucus,  they  do  more 
harm  than  good.  They  are  also  productive  of  many 
cases  of  chronic  catarrh  of  the  throat,  on  account  of 
their  local  irritant  qualities. 

Health  cannot  be  maintained  without  a  due  propor- 
tion of  mineral  salts  in  our  food,  but  the  only  one 
which  need  be  added  to  our  daily  menu  is  salt  or 
chloride  of  sodium.     This  is  continued  in  all  the  fluids 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  59 

and  tissues  of  the  body,  gives  relish  to  the  food,  and 
improves  the  appetite.  It  both  stimulates  the  kidneys 
and  the  bowels,  the  latter  being  often  encouraged  to  act 
freely  by  a  morning  draught  of  water  containing  some 
common  salt.  Most  of  us  are  inclined  to  add  too  much 
salt  to  our  food  after  cooking,  and  probably  ten  times 
too  much  is  already  added  during  that  process. 

Where  any  special  mineral  ingredient  is  required  by 
the  system  it  may  be  more  agreeable  taken  in  the  form 
of  food.  For  example,  iron  is  found  in  prunes,  apples, 
lettuce,  figs,  beans,  peas,  lentils,  potatoes,  asparagus, 
strawberries,  and  spinach ;  calcium  or  lime  is  to  be 
found  in  milk,  figs,  cabbage,  and  lentils ;  sulphur  in  peas, 
beans,  potatoes,  asparagus,  and  cabbage ;  phosphorus  in 
beans,  peas,  rice,  and  milk ;  magnesium  in  peas,  beans, 
cocoa-nuts,  barley,  and  rice ;  chlorine  in  milk,  lentils, 
asparagus,  and  cabbage ;  sodium  in  lentils,  figs,  and 
asparagus ;  potassium  in  beans,  lentils,  peas,  and  potato. 
Mineral  salts  in  general  may  be  found  in  large  quantities 
in  proportion  to  food  values  in  lentils,  peas,  beans,  cocoa- 
nuts,  potatoes,  milk,  rice,  figs,  apples,  barley,  cabbage,  and 
chestnuts. 

In  health  any  excess  of  common  salt  is  easily  disposed 
of  by  the  kidneys.  But  there  are  conditions  in  which 
this  does  not  take  place,  but  where  the  salt  remains  in 
the  tissues  and  attracts  to  itself  a  good  deal  of  water, 
producing  a  veritable  water-logging  of  many  of  the  in- 
ternal organs.  Long  before  this  can  be  detected  many 
minor  discomforts,  such  as  nasal  catarrh,  are  apt  to  arise. 
Hence  it  is  wise  to  refrain  from  taking  added  salt  in  our 
food. 

With  such  a  large  selection  of  nourishing  substances  at 
hand,  one  would  think  there  would  be  little  difficulty  in 
suiting  the  digestion  and  assimilative  capacities  of  every 


6o       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

individual.     But  we  all  know  that  this  is  not  so.     Probably 

because  of  the  tendency  to  congregate  in  cities,  the  diges- 
tion of  modern  man  has  become  much  more  capricious 
and  more  sensitive  to  the  toxic  contents  of  food  sub- 
stances, although  doubtless  the  spread  of  education  has 
something  to  do  with  the  popular  interest  in  what  is  the 
best  quantity  and  what  are  the  best  qualities  of  our  eatables. 

We  have  already  seen  that  meat  juices  and  beef 
teas  are  practically  excretions  formed  by  the  animal 
whilst  alive,  which  have  failed  to  be  discharged  in  the 
ordinary  way.  It  is  known  that  these  substances  a,re 
not  nutritious,  although  they  have  a  large  nitrogenous 
content  called  "  purins,"  and  that  very  many  people, 
especially  those  of  a  gouty  tendency,  are  extremely  sus- 
ceptible to  their  toxic  influence. 

Although  purins  are  discovered  in  fairly  large 
quantities  in  the  urine,  chiefly  in  the  shape  of  uric  acid, 
they  are  not  all  derived  from  our  food,  but  many  of 
them  are  produced  by  the  bodily  activities,  being  due  to 
the  wear  and  tear  of  the  cells.  Hence  we  speak  of 
"  exogenous  "  purins,  those  introduced  in  the  food,  and 
"  endogenous  "  purins,  those  formed  by  the  protoplasmic 
activity  of  the  body.  The  formation  of  the  latter  is  a 
normal  process  in  the  functioning  of  the  body,  and 
the  quantity  is  a  question  of  temperament  and  constitu- 
tion. Exogenous  purins,  on  the  other  hand,  are  con- 
tained in  our  food,  and  are  to  be  found  in  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa,  meat  soups,  beef  tea,  gravies,  fish,  flesh  and  fowl 
(especially  in  the  glandular  organs  such  as  liver,  sweet- 
bread, and  kidneys),  in  peas,  beans,  lentils,  brown  bread, 
oatmeal,  mushrooms,  asparagus,  onions,  spinach,  malt 
liquors,  and  strawberries. 

When  these  foods  are  partaken  of  in  large  quantities 
a  large  quantity  of  "  uric  acid  "  appears  in  the  urine,  and 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  6i 

in  the  great  majority  of  cases  no  evil  results  accrue.  In 
a  small  but  increasing  proportion  of  people,  however,  the 
purins  are  liable  to  cause  harm,  either  because  they 
accumulate  in  the  body  to  a  dangerous  extent  or  because 
the  tissues  are  extremely  susceptible  to  their  influence. 
The  result  is  that  headaches,  rheumatism,  and  other 
maladies  are  apt  to  occur,  and  some  have  gone  so  far  as 
to  say  that  all  bodily  disease  is  due  to  the  retention  of 
this  substance. 

I  am  satisfied  that  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  meat  soups,  beef 
tea,  and  gravies  when  taken  to  excess — and  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  this  is  a  relative  term — are  inclined  to  pro- 
duce headaches  and  other  discomforts  and  probably 
disease,  and  should  therefore  be  expunged  from  the 
dietary  altogether  or  taken  in  extremely  small  quantities. 
I  am  not  satisfied  that  the  purins  contained  in  any  of 
the  other  foods  mentioned  are  present  in  large  enough 
quantities  to  produce  any  serious  bodily  discomfort  or 
disease.  I  am  certain  that  when  these  customary  nourish- 
ing— though  purin-containing — foods  are  completely 
cut  out  of  the  dietary,  many  people  find  it  difficult  to 
take  enough  food  to  satisfy  their  bodily  requirements ; 
and  hence  anaemia,  exhaustion,  and  lack  of  vitality  are 
likely  to  ensue.  This  is  because  purins,  being  peptogenic, 
decidedly  aid  digestion,  and  familiar  nourishing  foods 
which  do  not  contain  any  are  much  more  difficult  of 
digestion  and  assimilation.  Hence  too  little  food  is  apt 
to  be  taken  and  weakness  produced.  As  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa,  meat  soups,  beef  tea,  and  gravies  contain  practically 
no  nourishment,  but  contain  by  far  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  purins,  nothing  is  lost  by  excluding  them  from 
the  dietary ;  and,  when  this  has  been  done,  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  no  harm  is  done  by  the  purins  contained 
in  the  other  nourishing  foods  mentioned. 


Caution. 


62       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Where  such  harm  does  occur,  there  is  no  alternative 
to  making  the  best  of  it  and  living  on  a  purin-free 
dietary  with  all  its  limitations.  In  such  cases  eggs 
(which  must  be  perfectly  fresh),  milk,  cheese,  nuts  (ex- 
cepting pea-nuts),  fruits,  and  cereals  (unless  those 
mentioned  previously)  must  constitute  the  major  portion 
of  the  dietary. 
Cases  for  But  there  are  other  poisons  to  be  found  in  foods  which 
are  quite  digestible  and  suitable  for  human  diet,  and 
their  discovery  in  recent  years  accounts  for  the  failure 
to  make  peas,  beans,  lentils,  nuts,  cheese,  etc. — all  theo- 
retically excellent  foods — popular  staple  articles  of  diet. 
Most  people  can  safely  include  those  substances  in  their 
dietetic  list,  but  it  is  the  exception  for  them  to  be  used 
as  the  chief  source  of  protein.  For  this  purpose  they 
can  hardly  be  relied  upon  for  more  than  one-fifth  of  the 
requirements  of  the  body,  although  a  small  proportion 
of  people  can  utilise  every  scrap  of  their  nutriment. 

It  has  remained  for  modern  investigation  to  demon- 
strate that  there  is  a  scientific  reason  for  this  non- 
suitability.  It  is  found  that  beans  contain  an  aromatic 
oil  and  bitter  alkaloid,  which  even  in  small  quantities 
are  not  tolerated  by  the  susceptible  stomach,  while  in 
larger  quantities  they  act  as  irritants  to  the  average 
person.  Pea-nuts,  which  are  really  legumes,  are  some- 
times quite  as  harmful  as  beans,  and  contain  the  same 
toxic  principle,  and  a  vetch  called  lathyrus,  a  close  re- 
lation to  the  bean,  is  the  active  agent  in  the  production 
of  that  deadly  scourge  of  cattle  ranches  known  as 
lathyrism.  Even  in  the  feeding  of  horses  and  cattle  it 
is  unwise  to  use  beans  in  large  quantities,  inflammation 
of  the  stomach,  flatulence,  and  loss  of  appetite  being 
quickly  produced. 

Nuts,    like    beans,  contain    very    large    quantities    of 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  63 

easily  digested  protein,  but  unfortunately  share  the  same 
defect  of  containing  a  strongly  irritating  substance, 
partly  in  the  kernel  but  chiefly  in  the  skin  which 
surrounds  the  kernel.  Where  this  skin  can  be  removed, 
as  in  almonds  by  blanching,  the  nuts  may  be  tolerated, 
and,  if  carefully  masticated,  serve  as  highly  nutritious 
articles  of  diet.  Many  cases  of  colic  and  obscure  pains 
in  the  abdomen  are  to  be  found  in  fruitarians  who  depend 
chiefly  on  nuts  for  their  supply  of  protein.  As  this 
trouble  rarely  arises  from  suitable  nut-containing  foods, 
prepared  by  experienced  manufacturers,  I  would  counsel 
fruitarians  to  eschew  the  raw  nuts  and  depend  for  their 
supplies  on  some  well  tried  brand  of  nut  food. 

Cereals  as  a  class  are  wonderfully  free  from  irritating 
and  poisonous  properties,  although  it  is  well  to  be  on 
one's  guard  when  using  rye,  to  ensure  its  freedom  from 
contamination  with  ergot,  a  parasitic  fungus  responsible 
for  that  convulsive  and  paralysing  disease  called 
ergotism. 

Tapioca  is  obtained  from  the  cassava  root  by  crushing 
and  evaporation,  so  as  to  rid  it  completely  of  its  juice, 
which  is  of  a  most  poisonous  character.  Fruits  have 
always  had  a  reputation  for  producing  diarrhoea  and 
other  intestinal  ailments,  but  it  is  surprising  that  the 
disasters  from  this  source  are  not  more  numerous,  when 
one  considers  the  enormous  amount  of  fruit  which  is 
eaten  in  this  country,  much  of  which  is  gathered  unripe 
and  attains  its  ripe  condition  without  exposure  to  the 
fructifying  rays  of  the  sun ;  it  is  quite  certain  that 
every  now  and  again  a  mass  of  indigestible  cellulose  is 
swallowed  instead  of  some  easily  assimilated  fruit  sugar. 
In  such  circumstances,  of  course,  serious  results  are  apt  to 
ensue.  Even,  however,  when  fruit  is  perfectly  ripe,  there 
is  quite  a  large  proportion  of  people  to  whose  digestion 
5 


64        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

many  species  are  repugnant.  The  chief  offenders  are  straw- 
berries, oranges,  cherries,  raspberries,  and  gooseberries. 

Sliell-fish  of  all  kinds  have  always  had  an  unenviable 
reputation  for  toxic  properties  and  the  production  of 
nettle-rash,  and  now  that  it  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated that  typhoid  fever  can  be  communicated  by 
oysters  and  mussels,  special  precautions  should  be 
always  taken  before  indulging  in  such  hazardous  luxuries. 

On  account  of  its  manner  of  preparation,  cheese  is 
never  above  suspicion.  The  agreeable  flavouring 
properties  which  develop  in  cheese  as  a  result  of  its 
ripening  are  often  the  cause  of  much  digestive  irritation 
and  frequently  induce  constipation,  whilst  every  now 
and  again  a  specially  poisonous  substance  called  tyro- 
toxicon  is  discovered  in  even  the  most  harmless-looking 
cheese. 

Doubtless  some  of  the  injurious  effects  known  to  be 
produced  by  diet  are  attributable  to  idiosyncrasy,  and 
some  remarkable  cases  are  detailed  in  the  annals  of 
medicine.  One  would  hardly  expect  to  find  honey 
amongst  the  irritant  foods,  but  it  is  frequently  provoc- 
ative of  vomiting  and  diarrhoea,  and  cases  are  on  record 
where  even  a  poultice  of  honey  induced  this  untoward 
effect.  There  are  many  instances  in  which  meat,  nut- 
meg, sugar,  or  strawberries  cannot  be  taken  without 
instant  vomiting,  and  a  little  boy  of  a  particularly  sus- 
ceptible family  has  been  killed  by  eating  one  strawberry. 
A  case  is  mentioned  where  vinegar  always  produced 
haemorrhage,  where  vomiting  always  followed  coffee,  and 
where  the  slightest  dose  of  manna  had  a  similar  effect. 

Of  all  foods,  perhaps  the  one  which  most  frequently 
induces  trouble  is  the  egg.  Swelling  of  the  lips  or  spots 
on  the  face,  vomiting,  syncope,  and  many  other  alarming 
symptoms  are  described  by  medical  men  as  following  the 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  65 

ingestion  of  an  egg,  and  this  has  occurred  even  though  it 
was  mixed  with  coffee  quite  unknown  to  the  partaker 
thereof. 

One  individual  could  not  eat  rice  in  any  shape  or 
form  without  extreme  distress,  spasmodic  asthma  being 
the  most  violent  symptom.  On  one  occasion  he  took 
lunch  with  a  friend  in  chambers,  only  partaking  of  bread, 
cheese,  and  bottled  beer.  He  was  seized  with  the  usual 
symptoms  of  rice-poisoning,  and  it  was  then  discovered 
that  a  few  grains  of  rice  had  been  put  into  each  bottle 
of  beer  for  the  purpose  of  exciting  a  secondary  fermenta- 
tion. 

The  most  remarkable  case  of  food  idiosyncrasy  known 
to  science,  however,  is  that  of  David  Waller,  who  lived 
about  the  year  1780.  To  him  wheat  flour  in  any  form 
proved  a  terrible  poison,  and  he  used  to  say  that  of  two 
equal  quantities  of  tartar  emetic  and  flour,  not  more 
than  a  dose  of  the  former,  he  would  rather  swallow  the 
tartar  emetic  than  the  flour.  Wheaten  flour  eaten  in 
any  form  was  followed  in  two  minutes  by  the  most 
deadly  symptoms,  lasting  for  close  on  a  fortnight,  and  even 
the  smell  of  the  wheat  produced  distressing  consequences. 

In  such  circumstances  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
each  one  should  give  the  most  diligent  attention  to  his 
means  of  sustenance,  so  that,  whilst  he  conforms  to  the 
principles  we  have  just  elucidated,  he  should  discover  for 
himself  individual  articles  of  diet  which  are  unsuitable 
in  his  own  case.  This,  however,  does  not  sanction  any- 
thing like  a  morbid  introspection  with  regard  to  daily 
food,  but  simply  discrimination  on  the  basis  of  observed 
facts. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  there  should  be  any  The  Pro- 
diversity  of  opinion  on  the  question  of  the  number  and  ^f^^™f 
time  of  the  meals,  accustomed  as  we  are  to  breakfast, 


66       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

dinner,  tea  and  supper,  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals. 
But  we  are  apt  to  forget  that  in  our  own  past  history 
there  have  been  many  changes  in  this  respect,  and  in 
seeking  for  a  reason  for  this  variability  we  find  that 
climate,  hours,  and  conditions  of  labour  and  temperament 
are  all  factors  of  great  importance. 

The  one-meal-a-day  system  we  may  dismiss  as  a  freak, 
as  it  is  founded  on  a  misconception  of  physiological  facts 
and  on  the  dictum  of  Dr.  Abernethy,  who  is  reported 
to  have  said,  "  One-fourth  of  all  a  man  eats  sustains 
him,  the  balance  he  retains  at  his  risk."  It  will  be 
found  that  most  of  the  advocates  of  this  method  are 
vegetarians,  and,  as  they  are  compelled  to  eat  a  much 
larger  meal  than  is  the  usual  custom,  a  much  longer 
period  is  taken  to  digest  and  assimilate  it  than  would 
be  the  case  on  a  mixed  diet.  A  certain  amount  of  time 
may  be  apparently  saved,  but  it  must  be  at  the  cost  of 
efficiency  of  work  and  even  economy  of  food,  for  it  is 
found  that  the  body  is  unable  to  take  advantage  of  such 
a  flood  of  nourishment  poured  into  it  at  one  time.  In 
the  end  dilatation  of  the  stomach  is  bound  to  take  place, 
on  account  of  the  mechanical  power  of  the  stomach  being 
overburdened  by  the  mere  weight  of  food. 

The  evidence  in  favour  of  a  two-meal-a-day  system  is 
very  much  stronger,  and  the  method  is  supported  by 
eminent  and  influential  dietetic  reformers,  as  well  as  by 
many  thousands  of  people  who  have  found  it  greatly  to 
their  advantage  and  comfort.  The  Continental  system 
of  a  light  repast  of  coffee  and  rolls  at  the  hour  of 
waking,  with  a  substantial  dejeuner  any  time  between 
11  a.m.  and  1  p.m.  and  a  dinner  between  6  and  8  p.m., 
approximates  closely  to  this  method.  On  close  in- 
vestigation it  will  usually  be  found,  however,  that  in 
addition  to  the  two  important  meals,  two  much  lighter 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  67 

ones  are  sandwiched  between  them.  One  pint  of  hot 
milk  with  coffee  and  rolls  at  6.30  or  7  a.m.  and  again 
at  5  p.m.  is  not  to  be  despised  as  a  nutritious  agency 
and  a  means  of  supplying  much-needed  fluid  to  assist  in 
the  assimilation  of  the  food. 

There  is,  however,  a  large  section  of  people,  chiefly  in 
America,  who  adhere  to  the  system  in  its  rigidity,  and 
amongst  them  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Dewey  and  Dr. 
Hemmeter.  Dr.  Kellogg,  of  Battle  Creek,  has  a 
Sanitarium  of  800  patients,  which  was  conducted  until 
recently  on  a  system  of  8  a.m.  breakfast  and  2  p.m. 
dinner  with  nothing  but  hot  water  between.  I  am 
pleased  to  be  able  to  record  that  on  my  recent  visit 
to  Battle  Creek  I  found  that  the  three-meals-a-day 
system  had  been  substituted,  and  has  been  found  in 
every  way  more  satisfactory  and  hygienic  than  the  old 
method. 

Dr.  Dewey  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  no-breakfast  The  No- 
plan,  taking  his  two  meals  at  1  p.m.  and  7.30  p.m.  pj'^^^^^^* 
respectively.  He  claimed  for  this  method  that  it  will 
make  one  more  vigorous  and  mentally  brighter,  will 
augment  nutrition  and  strength,  and  will  improve 
digestion  and  assimilation.  Naturally  the  meals  are 
increased  in  bulk  as  compared  with  the  four-meal-a-day 
system,  and  it  is  just  in  this  fact  that  one  may  find  an 
explanation  of  the  variety  of  systems  in  vogue.  The 
man  who  takes  a  good  breakfast  and  midday  meal  as 
a  rule  eats  very  little  at  his  two  later  repasts,  so  that 
he  is  ready  for  his  breakfast.  The  man,  however,  who 
takes  a  l-.ca\-y  meal  at  7.30  p.m.,  especially  if  he  be 
employed  at  a  -  l/atary  occupation,  is  quite  unfitted  for 
a  heavy  breaklajt  next  morning.  Science  does  not 
appear  to  support  the  theoretic  argument  advanced  for 
the   no-breakfast   plan    that   most   of    our   uric    acid    is 


68        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

excreted  in  the  morning  hours,  and  that  the  fresh  dose 
of  uric  acid  contained  in  tea,  coffee,  and  a  meat  breakfast 
prevents  its  proper  excretion. 

AVhatever  may  be  true  of  other  countries,  the  average 
man  in  this  country  finds  that  it  is  much  better  to  take 
a  good,  substantial  breakfast,  and  most  people  find  that 
they  are  incapable  of  very  much  work  before  it.  A 
Highlander  never  faces  the  ascent  of  a  mountain  without 
a  good  meal  in  his  stomach,  and  the  late  Dr.  Milner 
Fothergill  used  to  say,  "  I  would  always  back  a  good 
breakfaster,  from  a  boy  to  a  game  cockerel ;  a  good  meal 
to  begin  the  day  is  a  good  foundation."  Whilst  resident 
medical  officer  of  a  fever  hospital,  I  was  always  advised 
by  the  visiting  physician  never  to  make  a  night  visit  to 
one  of  the  patients  without  eating  some  food  first,  as 
quite  a  number  of  my  predecessors  had  neglected  this 
rule  and  succumbed  to  infectious  diseases.  I  cannot 
answer  for  the  truth  of  this  statement,  but  I  know  that 
a  late  eminent  surgeon  used  to  look  upon  the  inability 
to  eat  breakfast  as  the  initial  symptom  of  a  break- 
down. 

The  best  interests  of  the  population  in  these  islands 
will  be  served  by  a  system  which  allows  five  hours 
between  breakfast  and  dinner  and  six  hours  between 
dinner  and  supper.  This  allows  little  enough  time  for 
the  normal  stomach  to  deal  with  the  digestion  and 
removal  of  its  contents,  and  all  that  need  be  taken  in 
addition  is  a  supply  of  pure  (hot  or  cold)  water  an  hour 
or  more  before  the  first  meal  and  three  hours  after  the 
last  meal,  and  two  cups  of  weak  China  tea  in  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon. 
Every-  Usually,  however,  three  hours  or  so  after  the  midday 

of  Diet,      meal,  a  decoction  of   highly  saccharine  tea  with  bread 
and  butter  and  pastry  is  swallowed,  which,  in  the  average 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  69 

person,  can  only  sooner  or  later  lead  to  indigestion.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  most  cases  the  nutriment 
furnished  at  this  meal  is  quite  superfluous,  and  where  it 
does  not  produce  indigestion,  because  the  digestive  and 
assimilative  processes  are  sufficiently  strong  to  cope  with 
it,  almost  invariably  leads  to  obesity.  Even  only  half 
an  ounce  extra  per  day  means  a  quarter  of  a  pound  per 
week,  or  a  stone  per  year. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  several  times  already,  the 
most  important  factors  of  a  good  digestion  are  efficient 
mastication  and  insalivation.  It  has  been  recently 
shown  by  Sir  William  Macewen  that  imperfect  mastica- 
tion is  the  most  probable  cause  of  appendicitis.  To 
quote  his  own  words :  "  The  standing  lunch  eaten  against 
time,  whilst  the  mind  is  fully  occupied  with  business — 
the  food,  instead  of  being  chewed  and  mixed  with  the 
saliva,  being  simply  washed  down  as  a  bolus  with  some 
fluid — is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  not  only  producing 
indigestion,  but  of  ultimately  causing  appendicular  mis- 
chief. Man  has  neither  a  crop  like  a  bird  nor  a  CEecum 
like  a  horse,  and  therefore  he  has  no  provision  for  bolted 
food." 

He  quotes  the  case  of  a  French  lady  who  had  never 
been  ill  in  her  life,  but  who  had  consulted  doctors  in 
every  country  in  the  world,  had  a  general  chat  with 
them  as  to  how  best  to  maintain  her  health,  and  then 
had  any  medicine  they  prescribed  for  her  made  up  and 
carefully  locked  away,  "  But,"  she  added,  "  I  have  never 
been  ill ;  I  believe  the  greater  number  of  maladies  arise 
from  indigestion,  and  that  indigestion  occurs  from  too 
fast  eating ;  whereas  I  eat  slowly,  and  many  times  I  am 
ashamed  as  I  am  the  last  to  put  down  my  fork." 

A  bad  dietetic  habit  which  appears  to  be  extremely 
widespread  is  that  of  consuming  great  quantities  of  fluid 


70        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

with  the  meals.  Indeed,  iu  America,  where  dyspepsia 
is  almost  uDiversal,  the  usual  preliminary  to  every  meal 
is  a  large  glass  of  iced  water.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  stomach  does  not  absorb  fluids,  but  expels  them 
into  the  bowel,  and  this  must  take  place  before  it  deals 
with  the  solids ;  so  that  not  only  is  the  gastric  juice 
weakened  by  dilution,  but  delay  occurs  in  digestion.  If 
any  fluid  be  drunk  at  meals  it  should  not  be  between 
bites  of  solid  food,  but  in  small  sips  at  the  end  of  the 
meal,  and  always  in  less  quantity  than  half  a  pint.  Tea 
and  coffee  should  never  be  taken  by  persons  with  a  weak 
digestion. 

The  time  set  apart  for  meals  should  be  sacred,  and,  if 
possible,  a  little  quiet  rest  should  be  indulged  in  just 
before  sitting  down.  Whether  this  be  possible  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  a  period  of  bodily  inactivity  for  twenty 
or  thirty  minutes  after  a  meal  is  in  most  cases  essential 
to  a  healthy  digestion.  All  fretfulness,  irritability  of 
temper,  worry,  excitability,  and  other  passionate  and 
emotional  exhibitions  should  be  carefully  eschewed  at 
meal  times.  Nothing  but  agreeable  topics  should  be 
permitted  at  the  table.  There  is  every  hygienic  warrant 
for  the  custom  amongst  the  upper  classes  of  donning 
evening  dress  for  the  last  meal  of  the  day. 

Too  much  mixing  of  food  at  meal  times  is  to  be 
avoided.  The  fewer  the  items  of  any  one  meal  the 
more  easily  they  can  be  digested,  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  in  many  cases  four  small  meals  would  be 
the  best  course  to  adopt,  making  the  first  and  third 
chiefly  carbohydrate  and  the  second  and  fourth  chiefly 
protein.  There  is  no  doubt  this  would  answer  very  well 
in  some  cases,  but,  generally  speaking,  three  mixed  meals 
are  more  acceptable. 

Those  with  weak  dio;estions  will  find  it  wise  not  to 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  71 

partake  of  vegetables  and  fruit  at  the  same  meal.  Fruit 
and  milk  is  always  a  bad  combination,  although  cream 
may  be  taken  without  any  deleterious  effect.  Cooked 
fruit  is  always  more  acid  than  raw  fruit,  and  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  the  addition  of  sugar  does  not  correct 
but  only  masks  the  excessive  acidity.  Cane  sugar  in 
excess  often  produces  severe  intestinal  indigestion.  Acid 
fruit  is  contra-indicated  in  many  cases  altogether. 

Brown  bread  is  a  frequent  cause  of  indigestion,  its 
great  quantity  of  cellulose  and  husky  fibre  producing 
irritation  of  the  stomach.  This  statement  does  not 
apply  to  malted  breads  made  with  white  flour,  which 
are  less  irritating  and  are  much  more  valuable  for 
constipation  than  whole-meal  breads. 

One  should  try  to  sit  down  to  each  meal  at  the  same 
time  every  day,  as  the  digestive  juices  lose  their  virtue 
if  they  are  kept  waiting  or  are  not  used  with  regularity. 
Meat  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces  across  the  grain. 
If,  after  this  and  careful  mastication,  it  remains  a  tough 
fibrous  mass  in  the  mouth,  it  should  not  be  swallowed. 
Great  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  a  distinct  break 
between  the  courses  of  a  meal,  and,  if  talking  be  indulged 
in,  it  is  important  to  see  that  it  does  not  encourage  a 
premature  swallowing  of  the  food.  "  Mastication  with 
moderation  "  should  be  the  motto  for  meal  times. 

Meal  times  may  be  very  well  8.15  a.m.,  1.15  p.m.,  Breakfast. 
and  6.45  or  7  p.m.  and  nothing  should  be  eaten  between 
meals.  The  first  course  at  breakfast  should  always  con- 
sist of  fruit,  jjreferably  one  of  the  food  fruits  such  as 
bananas,  although  apples,  oranges,  and  melons  are  quite 
permissible  where  they  can  be  digested.  Bananas 
especially  should  be  extremely  well  masticated,  and  no 
child  below  the  age  of  six  should  ever  eat  them  at  all. 
It  is  a  distinct   advantage   to  allow  a   few  minutes   to 


72        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

intervene  between  the  fruit  course  and  the  next,  which 
is  usually  a  cooked  cereal. 

I  must  here  enter  a  protest  against  the  universal 
use  of  the  most  popular  breakfast  cereal,  namely,  oatmeal 
porridge,  as  it  is  usually  cooked  and  eaten.  I  was 
reared  amidst  a  plethora  of  porridge.  I  yield  to  no  one 
in  the  attractiveness  of  the  dish  when  cooked,  as  it 
should  be,  for  two  hours,  and  supped,  as  it  should  be, 
with  plenty  of  milky  cream.  Theoretically,  its  nutritive 
value  is  very  high,  and  for  those  who  can  digest  it  and 
assimilate  it  its  practical  value  is  equally  great.  But 
its  sloppy  nature  lends  itself  with  too  much  facility  to 
"  bolting,"  and  hence  it  comes  that  it  is  usually  permitted 
to  slip  into  the  stomach  without  a  pretence  of  mastica- 
tion and  insalivation.  Whether  this  has  anything  to 
do  with  its  power  of  inducing  cutaneous  eruptions, 
popularly  ascribed  to  its  "  heating "  properties,  I  know 
not,  but  it  is  quite  certain  that  in  country  districts  in 
Scotland  where  it  is  freely  used  there  is  more  dyspepsia 
than  anywhere  else  in  my  experience.  Strong  tea,  badly 
infused,  is  doubtless  a  factor  in  the  production  of  this 
ailment,  but  careless  mastication  is  the  principal  cause, 
and  for  this  reason  a  dry  cereal  such  as  Force,  Triscuit, 
Grapenuts,  etc.,  or  Zwieback,  is  much  more  suitable  and 
compels  mastication.  There  is  no  objection  to  oatmeal 
porridge  cooked  very  firm,  and,  instead  of  being  supped 
in  the  Scottish  style,  eaten  with  brown  or  malted  bread 
with  butter. 

Many  people  can  quite  conveniently  omit  this  course 
and  take  a  piece  of  white  fish,  one  or  two  rashers  of 
bacon  with  or  without  an  egg,  or  simply  one  or  two  soft 
boiled  or  poached  eggs  with  a  sufficiency  of  bread  and 
butter.  The  usual  hotel  breakfast  of  porridge,  fish, 
bacon  or  ham  and  eggs  is  only  capable  of  being  tolerated 


'  ;;J 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  73 

by  the  average  man  for  the  short  period  of  an  active 
summer  holiday.  One  or  two  cups  of  weak  China  tea 
with  a  little  cream  and  sugar  or  saccharine  may  be 
sipped  at  the  close  of  the  meal. 

The  typical  English  dinner,  consisting  of  soup,  fish.  Dinner, 
joint,  sweet,  bread  and  cheese  and  dessert,  followed  by  a 
cup  of  coffee,  is  much  too  heavy  to  be  indulged  in  by  the 
business  man  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Few  have  the 
leisure  to  spare  for  the  digestion  of  such  a  meal,  and  in 
any  case  it  provides  much  too  great  a  quantity  of  protein 
to  be  safe.  Most  business  men  will  find  that  it  is  wise 
to  confine  their  attention  to  one  form  of  animal  food  at 
the  midday  meal,  and  in  the  evening  to  take  a  meal 
consisting  solely  of  bread  and  fruit,  with  possibly  the 
addition  of  an  egg. 

For  those  who  consider  this  method  much  too  Spartan 
in  its  severity,  I  counsel  the  division  of  the  dinner  into 
two,  taking  the  fish  at  the  evening  meal  and  the  joint  in 
the  middle  of  the  day.  One  or  both  of  these  meals  may 
with  advantage  be  commenced  with  a  small  supply  of 
soup.  Soup  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  nutritious 
material  in  an  easily  assimilable  form,  thus  relieving  the 
feeling  of  fatigue  so  often  found  at  the  beginning  of  a 
meal,  and  actually  encourages  a  desire  for  more  food. 
Not  only  so,  but  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of  peptogenic 
substances,  and  we  have  seen  that  these,  along  with  dex- 
trin, promote  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juice.  Hence  the 
restoring  qualities  of  a  plate  of  soup  and  a  piece  of  bread, 
the  latter  being  partly  converted  into  dextrin  in  the 
mouth  by  the  aid  of  the  saliva.  Six  or  eight  ounces  of 
beef,  mutton,  lamb,  poultry,  or  game  may  well  follow  the 
soup,  and  should  be  accompanied  by  one  or  two  green 
vegetables,  with  sometimes  one  or  two  potatoes.  Sweets 
or  pudding  may  be  omitted  at  this  meal,  and  a  dish  of 


74        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

stewed  apples  or  prunes  and  rice,  or  even  a  baked  apple, 
may  complete  the  meal.  A  biscuit  with  butter  or  a 
small  piece  of  cheese  may  be  added  in  some  cases.  There 
is  no  necessity  to  drink  anything  at  the  meal,  although 
4  or  5  oz.  of  water  may  be  sipped  without  much  harm 
ensuing. 
Sapper.  A  slice  of  Hovis  or  malted  bread  with  butter,  1  egg, 

and  a  plate  of  stewed  prunes  will  be  sufficient  at  supper 
time  for  the  needs  of  most  sedentary  workers.  Many 
prefer  to  combine  their  tea  and  supper  and  add  a  piece 
of  fish  and  some  milk  pudding,  with  the  concomitant  of 
a  cup  of  tea,  but  this  is  hardly  a  physiological  combina- 
tion. Soup,  fish,  pudding,  stewed  fruit,  and  a  little 
cheese  answers  much  better. 

If  we  analyse  the  day's  feeding  recommended,  we  shall 
find  that  it  is  constituted  as  in  table  opposite. 

As  every  gramme  of  protein  is  capable  of  developing 
4"1  calories,  421  calories  represent  as  near  as  possible 
100  grms.  or  3|  oz.  of  protein,  the  recognised  amount  in 
a  standard  diet. 

Each  gramme  of  fat  is  capable  of  developing  9  "3 
calories,  hence  635  calories  represent  6  8  grms.  or  2^  oz. 
of  fat,  quite  enough  for  a  townsman  or  sedentary  worker. 

Each  gramme  of  carbohydrate  can  develop  4"1 
calories,  hence  1086  calories  will  represent  265  grms. 
of  carbohydrate,  or  nearly  9  oz. 

This  gives  a  total  amount  of  14f  oz.  water-free  food. 
We  found,  however,  that  57^  oz.  of  actual  food  were  con- 
sumed at  the  three  meals,  and  the  extra  42  oz.  represent 
the  water  added  during  the  process  of  cooking  or  con- 
tained in  the  original  food  stuff. 
Diet  in  Any  one  who  has  carefully  followed  the  above  remarks 

Dyspepsia,  g^^^j  ^^^^^  jg  content  to  apply  them  daily  will  not  be  at  all 
likely  to  suffer  from  indigestion.     Every  victim  of  that 


FOOD  (SPECIAL) 


75 


unfortunate  malady,  however,  would  do  well  to  avoid  the 
following  articles :  rich  soups,  or  in  general  any  sloppy 
articles  of  diet,  veal,  pork,  hashes,  stews,  boiled,  stewed. 


Dalories  o 

F 

A 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrate. 

Ounces. 

Brectkfast — 

Banana .         .         . 

5 

6 

89 

3i 

Cooked  cereal 

7 

1 

67 

Milk      . 

22 

66 

34 

6 

i      Bacon    . 

12 

188 

0 

2 

1          -^DO            *             • 

26 

42 

0 

n 

1      Sugar    . 

25 

I 

Marmalade     . 

25 

i 

i       Butter  . 

i 

99 

h 

Bread    . 

24 

97 

' 

168 

4 

410 

408 

18i 

j  Dinner — 

Soup  (tomato) 

14 

50 

11 

4| 

Bread    . 

6 

2 

42 

1 

Meat  (beef)    '. 

160 

20 

4 

Potatoes 

7 

1 

67 

3 

Cauliflower    . 

3 

15 

7 

3 

Pudding  (sago) 

2 

2 

96 

H 

;       Stewed  prunes 

3 

1 

96 

H 

j      Cheese  . 

5 

19 

1 

i 

i      Biscuit  . 

3 

20 

i 

i 
i 

203 

no 

340 

m 

i 

j  Supper — 

Bread 

24 

8 

168 

4 

I      Butter 

1 

99 

X 

Fish 

95 

5 

5' 

Stewed  apples 

1 

3 

170 

6 

121 

115 

338 

15i 

Totals   .... 

421 

635 

1086 

57i 

76        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

baked  and  re-cooked  meat,  rabbit,  salted  or  corned  beef; 
gravies,  fried  foods,  liver,  kidney,  salted,  smoked  or  pre- 
served fish,  goose,  duck,  sausage,  crabs,  lobster,  salmon, 
pies,  pastry,  cheese,  nuts,  pickles,  crude  vegetables  like 
young  potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  turnips,  cucumbers,  fresh 
bread,  excessively  sweet  dishes  apt  to  undergo  fermenta- 
tion, unripe  acid  fruit,  ice  cream,  ices,  malt  or  spirituous 
liquors. 

A  little  clear  thin  soup,  almost  any  white  fish,  mutton, 
chicken,  lamb,  game,  boiled,  poached,  or  raw  eggs ;  simple 
farinaceous  foods,  if  special  care  be  taken  in  mastication, 
green  peas,  cauliflower,  stewed  celery,  vegetable  marrow, 
asparagus,  baked  apples,  and  ripe  fruit  may  usually  be 
eaten  with  impunity.  It  is  important,  however,  not  to 
restrict  the  diet  too  closely,  or  the  patient  will  soon 
suffer  from  malnutrition.  Flint  says :  "  I  have  never 
known  a  dyspeptic  to  recover  vigorous  health  who  under- 
took to  live  upon  a  strictly  regulated  diet,  and  I  have 
never  known  of  an  instance  of  a  healthy  person  living 
according  to  a  strict  dietetic  system  who  did  not  become 
a  dyspeptic."  Appetite  is  often  the  best  guide  in  in- 
digestion. 

Constipation,  which  is  one  of  the  most  common  troubles 
of  civilised  existence,  is  not  really  a  disease,  hence  the 
majority  of  its  victims  rarely  display  any  serious  de- 
parture from  the  healthy  state.  It  is  usually  a  result 
of  irregular  or  diminished  activity  of  the  muscular  coat 
of  the  bowel  or  a  diminution  of  the  fluidity  of  its  contents. 
Irregular  peristaltic  action  results  in  spastic  or  spasmodic 
constipation,  and  this  is  met  with  in  nervous  people  who 
are  subject  to  much  excitement,  worry,  grief,  or  mental 
strain,  the  removal  of  which  usually  brings  about  a  cure. 

Diminished  peristaltic  action  produces  atonic  constipa- 
tion, and  in  this  condition  dietetic  treatment  is  of  immense 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  yj 

importance.  Foods,  therefore,  that  contain  an  indigestible 
residue  are  prescribed  for  such  patients,  although  it  is 
important  to  note  that  sufferers  from  the  previous  form 
of  constipation  would  find  that  such  foods  would  exag- 
gerate their  malady.  Whole-meal,  bran,  brown  or  malted 
bread  should  always  be  used  in  atonic  constipation. 
Gingerbread  is  often  successful.  A  proportion  of  sawdust 
is  occasionally  added  to  the  loaf  with  advantage.  Plenty 
of  butter  with  marmalade,  honey,  golden  syrup,  or  black 
treacle  forms  a  useful  addition  to  the  bread.  Malted 
oatmeal  porridge  eaten  with  black  treacle  is  especially 
useful.  Vegetables  of  all  kinds  should  be  used  if  there 
be  no  dyspepsia,  but  when  this  is  present  these  and 
many  other  of  the  foods  here  mentioned  are  interdicted. 
Boiled  Spanish  onions  taken  each  evening  for  supper  often 
cure  the  most  obstinate  cases  of  constipation. 

The  mainstay  of  such  a  diet  should,  however,  be  fruit 
of  all  kinds,  especially  prunes,  figs,  dates,  raisins,  and 
tamarinds.  If  necessary,  some  of  these  should  be  taken 
at  each  meal,  singly  or  combined,  e.g.,  prunes  with  raisins, 
figs  with  prunes,  etc.  A  few  senna  pods  may  be  added 
to  the  prunes  whilst  they  are  being  stewed.  A  home- 
made syrup  of  figs  is  often  successful.  Japanese  seaweed 
or  agar-agar  may  be  usefully  added  to  soups. 

PkACTICAL    StTMMAEY. 

1.  Milk  is  the  typical  natural  food,  and  is  used  as 
such  by  all  nations  and  peoples.  Its  great  defects  are 
its  constipating  qualities  and  its  liability  to  contamina- 
tion with  disease  germs. 

2.  Skim-milk,  cream,  butter  and  cheese  are  all  valuable 
products  made  from  milk. 

3.  Butter-milk  or  "  curdled "  milk,  which    is   manu- 


78        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

factured  by  adding  active  cultures  of  lactic  acid  bacilli  to 
new  milk,  is  much  in  vogue  as  a  nutrient  and  intestinal 
antiseptic.  It  is  not  free  from  danger  when  used  as  an 
adjunct  to  an  ill-balanced  dietary. 

4.  Eggs  are  very  nutritious,  and  contain  much  protein 
and  fat.  Sixteen  of  them  if  used  alone  would  be  required 
for  a  day's  ration. 

5.  Flesh  forms  the  most  important  supply  of  the 
protein  food  of  civilised  mankind,  and  when  cooked  is 
highly  flavoured  and  easily  digested. 

6.  Beef  tea  contains  practically  no  nourishment.  It  is 
chiefly  of  value  as  a  stimulant. 

7.  Vegetable  foods  contain  more  water,  more  sugar  and 
starch,  and  less  protein  and  fat  than  animal  foods. 
They  are  therefore  more  bulky,  and  must  be  eaten  in 
greater  quantity  to  satisfy  nutritive  requirements. 

8.  Brown  bread  is  more  indigestible  and  less  nutritious 
than  white  bread,  and  hence  is  more  valuable  as  a 
laxative. 

9.  Peas,  beans,  and  lentils  are  theoretically  amongst 
the  most  nutritious  of  food  products,  but  are  not  easily 
tolerated  by  the  average  man, 

10.  Vegetables  and  fruits  are  valuable  laxatives, 
diuretics,  and  agencies  for  purifying  the  blood. 

11.  Nuts  are  highly  nutritious,  and  when  properly 
prepared  easily  digested  articles  of  diet.  Pine  kernels 
and  almonds  should  be  specially  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection. 

12.  Common  salt  is  apt  to  be  used  in  excess,  to  our 
physical  detriment. 

13.  Purin-containing  foods  like  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  beef 
tea,  are  occasionally  the  cause  of  headaches,  rheumatism, 
and  other  maladies. 

14.  Many  valuable  foods  contain  poiL^ous  which  must 


FOOD  (SPECIAL)  79 

be  guarded  against      Much  of  this  may  be  due  to  idio- 
syncrasy. 

15.  The  best  arrangement  of  the  meals  is  three 
each  day,  with  an  interval  of  five  hours  between  break- 
fast and  dinner,  and  six  hours  between  dinner  and 
supper. 

16.  All  food  should  be  well  masticated,  and  not  bolted 
or  swallowed  w^ith  drauo-hts  of  fluid. 


CHAPTEE    III. 
DRINK. 

LAW  II. — " Di'lnk  from  two  to  three  pints  of 
fluid  each  day.'' 

ONE  of  the  most  common  complaints  heard  from  one's 
patients  is  that,  even  after  a  very  good  night's 
sleep,  they  awake  in  the  morning  feeling  worn  out  and 
wretched  and  quite  unfitted  for  their  day's  work.  They 
often  add  that  they  feel  much  more  exhausted  in  the 
morning  than  when  they  went  to  bed  the  previous  night. 
Such  people  are  inclined  to  be  incredulous  when  they 
are  told  that  their  discomfort  is  entirely  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  drink  too  little  fluid:  but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  in  the  great  majority  of  these  cases  that  is  the 
explanation. 

The  human  body  is  built  up  of  countless  millions  of 
cells,  each  one  of  which  is  surrounded  by  a  fluid  medium 
— the  blood — and  the  cells  themselves  are  largely  com- 
posed of  water,  for  quite  60  per  cent,  of  the  human 
body  consists  of  this  element.  These  cells  live  by 
imbibing  their  nutriment  from  the  blood  and  casting  out 
their  excreta  or  waste  matter  into  it.  Where  too  little 
fluid  is  supplied,  the  blood  maintains  a  higher  specific 
gravity  and  the  poisonous  waste  products  of  tissue  or  cell 
change  are  only  cast  off  very  imperfectly.     The  body  is 


DRINK  8 1 

therefore  poisoned  by  its  own  excretions,  and  it  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  chief  reason  of  this  is  because 
a  sufficient  amount  of  fluid  has  not  been  supphed  to 
carry  off  in  solution  the  waste  matter  the  cells 
manufacture. 

Now,  there  is  no  fluid  known  to  chemists  which  can 
dissolve  as  many  solid  substances  as  water,  which  is 
indeed  the  best  solvent  in  existence.  If,  therefore,  a 
sufficient  quantity  be  supplied,  the  whole  process  of 
nutrition  is  stimulated,  because  the  paralysing  effect  of 
the  toxic  waste  products  is  removed  by  their  solution 
and  consequent  excretion  by  the  kidneys,  skin,  bowels, 
or  lungs.  If,  on  the  contrary,  these  toxic  materials  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  body,  all  sorts  of  diseases 
will  arise,  of  the  nature  of  gout,  "  goutiness,"  rheumatism, 
or  one  of  the  ailments  commonly  supposed  to  be 
associated  with  "  uric  acid." 

Gilman  Thompson  has  well  summarised  the  uses  of 
water  in  the  body  somewhat  as  follows : — 

(1)  It  is  incorporated  with  the  tissues. 

(2)  It  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  all  the  fluids  of 

the  body — maintaining  their  proper  degree 
of  dilution. 

(3)  It  prevents  friction  by  moistening  the  mucous 

and  serous  lining  membranes. 

(4)  It    distributes    the    food    to    the    tissues    and 

removes    waste    matters,    through  the   fluid 
media  of  the  blood  and  lymph. 

(5)  It  distributes  the  body  heat. 

(6)  It  regulates  the  temperature  by  absorption  and 

evaporation. 
Deprivation  of    water    means    death    to  every  living 
thing.     Man  can  abstain  from  eating  for  weeks,  and  yet 
live ;  but  without  water  he  would  die  in  a  few  days,  and 


82        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

be  seriously  indisposed  iu  a  few  hours.  On  the  other 
hand,  excessive  consumption  of  water  or  any  fluid  is  apt 
to  be  followed  by  disagreeable  symptoms  of  indigestion, 
loss  of  appetite,  fulness,  oppression,  flatulence,  vomiting, 
purging. 
The  Need  The  quantity  of  water  required  per  day  will,  of 
ance.  course,  vary  with  the  size  of  the  individual,  the  nature 
of  his  labours  and  diet,  the  external  temperature  and 
the  dryness  of  the  air.  It  is  pretty  safe  to  state,  how- 
ever, that  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  pints — or  five 
or  six  ordinary  glasses — of  water  should  be  taken  every 
day.  This  is  in  addition  to  the  pint  and  a  quarter,  or 
twenty-five  ounces,  which  is  contained  in  our  ordinary 
solid  food,  because  on  an  average  there  is  50  per  cent,  of 
water  in  the  so-called  "  solids  "  of  our  dietary. 

It  is  perfectly  certain  that  very  few  people  take 
anything  like  this  quantity  of  fluid  each  day,  and  even 
then  it  is  mostly  in  the  shape  of  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  or 
even  alcohol.  It  may  be  asserted  with  absolute  truth 
that  no  law  of  health  is  so  frequently  broken,  or  ignored, 
as  that  requiring  the  ingestion  of  a  sufficient  amount 
of  fluid  per  day.  If  the  above  dictum  is  considered  a 
counsel  of  perfection,  as  the  majority  will  still  adhere  to 
their  tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa,  then  at  least  three  tumbler- 
fuls  of  water,  in  addition  to  the  fluid  taken  in  these 
beverages,  should  be  consumed  each  day. 

Some  fruits  and  vegetables  contain  90  to  95  per 
cent,  of  water,  and  hence  fruitarians  and  vegetarians  can 
be  content  with  a  good  deal  less  than  the  amount 
indicated,  but  even  they  are  better  to  take  as  much  fluid 
as  possible  within  the  above  limits. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  water  is  absorbed  by 
the  stomach,  as  very  little  enters  the  system  in  this  way. 
Almost  as    soon    as    it    is    swallowed    it    begins    to  be 


DRINK  83 

pumped  out  of  the  stomach  into  the  commencement  of 
the  small  bowel,  and  there  it  is  rapidly  taken  up  by  the 
lilood  vessels  of  the  portal  system, — which  drains  the 
organs  of  digestion  into  the  liver, — and  by  the  lymphatics, 
and  hence  it  comes  that  the  liver  is  the  first  organ  which 
receives  a  thorough  washing  out  from  the  ingested 
water. 

Although  the  stomach  only  absorbs  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  it  rapidly  sucks  up  alcohol,  the  purins  of  meat 
extracts,  and  the  essential  principles  of  tea  and  coffee. 
Hence  the  rapid  restorative  or  stimulating  properties  of 
these  substances,  and  the  quick  temporary  relief  which 
follows  their  use  in  cases  suited  for  their  administration. 

In  health  the  bowel  can  each  day  absorb  three  or 
four  pints  of  water  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  solid  food, 
but  in  certain  conditions  of  ill-health  it  is  unable  to  do 
so,  and  diarrhoea  is  set  up. 

Water  varies  in  its  effect  on  the  stomach  and  other  Hot  or 
organs  according  to  its  temperature.  A  pint  of  cold  S?^^ 
water  is  expelled  from  the  stomach  in  three-quarters  of 
an  hour;  whereas  with  water  at  130°  F. — the  proper 
temperature  at  which  to  drink  hot  water — less  time  will 
elapse  before  its  expulsion.  Cold  water  stimulates  a 
flow  of  gastric  juice,  and  hence  would  increase  many 
dyspeptic  conditions,  especially  those  associated  with 
acidity.  It  is  also  more  inclined  to  act  upon  the  kidneys, 
causing  an  increased  flow  of  urine  and  having  a  tendency 
to  dissolve  gravel  and  gouty  concretions  in  the  kidneys 
and  bladder. 

Hot  water,  on  the  other  hand,  acts  beneficially  on 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  ducts  of  the 
liver,  relieving  spasm  of  the  muscular  layer  both  in  the 
stomach  and  bile  ducts,  and  dissolving  excevSS  of  mucus. 
Probably  more  of  it  is  retained  in  the  alimentary  canal, 


84       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

and  henee  it  has  a  greater  influence  in  the  cure  of 
constipation  than  cold  water. 

Absorption  from  the  bowel  takes  place  chiefly  by  the 
portal  vein,  and  so  the  liver  is  subjected  to  a  thorough 
washing  out  while  the  water  is  on  its  way  to  the  hepatic 
vein,  which  carries  all  the  blood  from  the  liver  into 
the  general  circulation.  Having  reached  the  blood,  the 
water  is  then  able  to  modify  the  secretions  of  all  the 
organs,  making  them  more  fluid  and  capable  of  passing 
much  more  freely  through  the  ducts  and  glands.  In 
particular,  the  secretions  of  the  liver  are  fluidified,  and 
for  this  reason  not  only  are  gall-stones  most  unlikely  to 
form  in  the  gall  bladder  of  one  who  drinks  a  sufficiency 
of  water,  but  even  when  they  are  formed  the  drinking  of 
water  is  at  least  a  necessary  adjunct  to  their  solution,  if 
that  be  possible. 

The  drinking  of  hot  water  is  unquestionably  an 
important  factor  in  the  improvement  of  health  and  the 
prevention  of  disease.  It  exerts  its  favourable  action  by 
dissolving  and  removing  from  the  body  waste  matter  of 
all  kinds,  the  retention  of  which  would  be  liable  to  set 
up  chronic  rheumatic  and  gouty  conditions.  For  this 
purpose  it  would  be  well  if  one  pint  and  a  half  could 
be  taken  two  hours,  if  possible,  before  breakfast,  and 
another  pint  one  hour  before  diimer  and  supper.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  busy  man  has  to  be  content  with  a  good 
deal  less.  It  is  an  advantage  if  a  little  alkali,  such  as 
bicarbonate  of  soda  and  perhaps  a  little  common  salt, 
be  added  to  the  water,  because  most  of  the  objectionable 
waste  matters  are  acid,  and  the  addition  of  the  alkali 
assists  in  their  solution.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
whatever  benefit  is  derived  from  the  water  treatment 
at  a  foreign  or  home  Spa  is  due  to  the  extra  supply  of 
bland  or  possibly  detergent  (pmifying)  fluid  consumed, 


DRINK  85 

coupled  with  the  careful  regimen  and  cliauge  of  sceue 
and  air. 

The  less  fluid  that  is  taken  at  meal  times  the  better 
will  the  digestion  be,  as  there  is  a  tendency  to  wash  half- 
masticated  food  from  the  mouth  into  the  stomach,  and 
this  is  of  course  a  reprehensible  practice.  Four  or  five 
ounces  may  be  taken  at  the  close  of  each  meal,  and  in 
all  circumstances  it  is  much  wiser  to  sip  water  than  to 
take  it  at  a  draught. 

In  whatever  way  water  gains  an  entrance  to  the  body,  The 
whether  by  injection  inb©  the  bowel  or  under  the  skin  or  oAho" 
by  drinking,  it  enters  the  circulation  and  is  carried  to  Kidnpys. 
the  various  organs  of  excretion  to  be  removed  from  the 
body  with  the  waste  matter  it  has  dissolved.  There  is  a 
continuous  escape  of  v/ater  from  the  system,  as  much  as 
four  and  a  half  pints  passing  out  each  da}'.  From  the 
kidney  it  is  excreted  as  mine,  which  is  water  holding  in 
solution  the  waste  matters  from  the  breaking  up  of 
proteins.  From  the  lungs  it  is  excreted  as  watery 
vapour  holding  in  solution  the  waste  matters  of  the 
breaking  up  of  the  carbohydrates.  From  the  skin  it 
passes  off  as  perspiration  and  sebaceous  matter  containing 
some  of  the  fats.  From  the  bowel  it  is  mingled  with 
the  fteces,  which  are  the  undissolved  residue  of  the  food 
and  digestive  juices  and  some  fluids  thrown  off  by  the 
bowel  wall.  About  50  per  cent,  of  the  water  we 
swallow  is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  28  per  cent,  by 
the  skin,  20  per  cent,  by  the  lungs,  and  2  fev  cent, 
by  the  bowel. 

The  kidneys  arc  two  brownish  masses  deeply  situated 
in  the  region  of  the  back,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
vertebral  column.  They  are  in  a  much  higher  position 
than  most  people  imagine,  their  posterior  surface  lying 
on  the  last  two  ribs  and  the  muscles  in  the  neighbour- 


86        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

hood,  the  right  being  a  little  lower  than  the  left.  It  is 
quite  a  fallacy  to  suppose  that  they  are  the  seat  of  the 
very  common  backache  or  luml^ago  which  is  so  frequently 
experienced  by  some  people,  and  which  is  almost  always 
located  in  the  muscles  or  the  binding  tissue  between  the 
muscles  and  bones. 

Doubtless,  badly  flushed  kidneys  are  apt  to  cause  a 
slight  sense  of  weariness,  heaviness,  or  discomfort  in  the 
loins,  due  to  deposit  of  gravel  in  the  ducts,  and  the 
remedy  for  this  condition — namely,  a  more  plentiful  con- 
sumption of  water — is  self-evidefit.  Severe  pain  in  the 
back  is,  however,  never  in  the  kidney  itself,  and,  if  not 
in  the  muscles,  is  likely — especially  if  -it  be  of  an 
agonising  character — to  be  in  the  ureter,  i.e.  the  duct 
which  conveys  the  urine  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder. 
A  stone  passing  down  this  tube  is  capable  of  setting  up 
an  acute,  intermittent,  lancinating  or  stabbing  pain, 
shooting  down  into  the  groin,  and  only  being  relieved  by 
opiates  or  by  the  discharge  of  the  obstruction  into  the 
bladder. 

All  the  important  ingredients  of  urine  are  simply 
removed  from  the  blood  which  circulates  through  the 
kidneys,  and  hence  when  they  are  diseased  the  body 
may  be  poisoned  by  the  accumulation  of  the  urinary 
constituents  which  the  kidneys  have  failed  to  subtract. 
The  blood  does  not  part  with  its  own  protein  constituents 
if  the  kidneys  be  healthy,  but  if  egg  albumin  or  peptones 
gain  admission  to  the  circulation  they  are  quickly  ex- 
creted by  a  healthy  kidney. 

The  quantity  of  urine  passed  in  twenty-four  hours 
varies  with  the  amount  of  blood  passing  through  the 
kidney  and  the  local  or  general  pressure  maintained. 
On  a  cold  day  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  contract  and 
those  of  the  kidney  expand,  and  hence  the  amount  of 


DRINK  87 

urine  is  increased,  the  reverse  happening  on  a  warm  clay. 
Under  the  influence  of  fear  or  excitement,  again,  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  kidney  are  dilated  and  more  urine 
is  excreted.  In  kidney  disease  the  blood  pressure  is 
usually  high,  and  a  great  amount  of  urine  is  passed, 
whereas  in  the  conditions  which  are  surgically  known  as 
"  shock  "  it  is  very  low  and  the  urine  is  scanty. 

The  amount  of  urine  excreted  depends  also  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  amount  of  water  drunk,  and  the  rate  of 
discharge  will  vary  according  to  the  position  of  the  body 
and  other  circumstances.  If  two  pints  be  drunk  it 
should  be  excreted  in  the  urine  within  three  hours  in 
the  erect  position,  but  in  much  less  time  if  lying  on  the 
back  in  bed.  In  diabetes  the  great  amount  of  water 
excreted  is  a  rough  index  of  the  amount  of  sug;ar  being 
expelled  from  tlie  body. 

If  excess  of  animal  food  be  eaten  the  urine  is  very 
acid,  whereas  on  a  vegetarian  diet  it  has  a  tendency  to 
be  alkaline.  Proteins  are  metabolised  or  broken  up  in 
the  system  into  urea,  uric  acid,  and  ammonia.  The  amount 
of  urea  depends  entirely  on  the  amount  of  nitrogenous 
food  ingested.     The  amount  of  uric  acid  depends  upon  : — 

(1)  The  amount  of  purins — so-called  "uric  acid" — 

eaten  in  the  food.  This  is  called  "  exo- 
genous "  uric  acid. 

(2)  The    breaking    down    of    the    body  tissues  by 

exercise,  etc.  This  is  called  "  endogenous  " 
uric  acid. 

(3)  The  absorption  of  acids  formed  from  indigestion 

— which  is  probably  the  cause  of  much 
rlieumatism  in  those  who  disobey  the  laws 
of  health.  The  amount  of  ammonia  depends 
on  the  quantity  of  acid  entering  the  blood, 
and  hence  is  greater  on  a  meat  diet. 


88        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  drinking  large 
quantities  of  water  tends  to  produce  corpulence.  It 
has  absolutely  jy&r  se  no  power  to  produce  fat,  but  if 
taken  along  with  food  it  produces  a  more  rapid  and 
effective  distribution  of  the  nourishment,  so  that  it  is 
wise  to  restrict  the  amount  of  fluid  taken  at  meal  times 
in  those  who  are  inclined  to  obesity.  But,  meal  times 
apart,  many  stout  people  drink  much  too  little  fluid, 
with  the  result  that  they  are  unable  to  eliminate  their 
waste  matter,  which  accumulates  in  the  system  much 
to  their  disadvantage.  The  true  treatment  of  obesity 
consists  in  diminishing  all  the  food,  especially  the 
carbohydrates,  taking  plenty  of  exercise,  and  drinking 
hot  water  copiously  between  meals. 

Water  may  contain  harmful  substances,  such  as  excess 
of  mineral  salts,  or  the  micro-organisms  of  typhoid  fever 
and  cholera.  Boiling  will  kill  all  the  disease  germs,  and 
will  throw  down  a  portion  of  the  mineral  matter  held  in 
solution.  It  cannot,  however,  entirely  free  the  fluid 
of  all  its  deleterious  ingredients,  and  hence,  where  it  is 
suspected,  distillation  should  always  be  resorted  to.  This  ■ 
is  quite  a  simple  process  nowadays,  when  excellent 
stills  may  be  obtained  at  a  merely  nominal  cost.  They 
require  very  little  manipulation  or  attention,  as  they  act 
almost  in  an  automatic  manner.  Most  of  them  are 
constructed  so  that  the  flat  insipid  taste  of  the  distilled 
water  is  removed,  but  where  this  is  not  arranged  for  it 
can  easily  be  made  pa,latable  by  pouring  from  one  glass 
into  another  or  shaking  it  up  in  a  large  bottle  to 
enable  it  to  re-absorb  the  air  which  has  been  expelled. 

The  consumption  of  distilled  water  is  a  valuable 
agency  in  the  prevention  and  amelioration  of  many 
ailments — chief  of  which  are  stone  in  the  kidney  and 
bladder,  and  goitre  or  "  Derbyshire  neck."     "W  hen  every 


DRINK  89 

other  remedy  has  failed,  this  latter  disease  is  often  cured 
by  distilled  water. 

Filters  should  rarely  be  used,  as  they  are  seldom 
reliable. 

There  is  no  principle  inherent  in  water  which  is 
capable  of  imparting  to  it  any  stimulating  property,  but 
Sir  Lauder  Brunton  has  pointed  out  that  a  wineglassful 
of  cold  water  will  produce  a  greater  degree  of  stimulation 
of  the  heart,  if  it  be  sipped,  than  the  same  quantity  of 
brandy  swallowed  with  a  gulp.  This  is  due,  however,  to 
reflex  action,  and  not  to  the  nature  of  the  fluid.  Most 
of  the  other  beverages  consumed  by  man  have,  in 
addition  to  this  solvent  and  diluent  power,  some  other 
property,  such  as  agreeable  taste,  or  else  they  act  as 
stimulants  or  pain-soothers.  Mankind  appears  to  have 
an  inherent  craving  for  something  either  to  relieve 
fatigue  or  to  make  it  less  conscious,  as  such  beverages 
are  used  both  by  civilised  and  uncivilised  peoples. 

Tea  is  by  far  the  most  popular  of  these  drinks,  and  How  to 
its  use  as  a  beverage  has  been  common  among  the  ^"^^^ 
Chinese  from  very  early  times.  It  was  as  late  as  1657 
that  it  was  introduced  into  England  at  Garraway's 
Coffee  House,  and  it  was  immediately  received  into 
great  favour.  Britain  and  her  colonies  still  consume 
more  tea  per  head  than  any  other  nation  in  the  world, 
as  statistics  of  fairly  recent  date  clearly  show.  The 
annual  consumption  of  tea  per  head  of  the  population 
in  France  was  shown  to  be  1  oz.,  Germany  2  oz.,  the 
United  States  17  oz.,  Holland  24  oz.,  Canada  74  oz., 
the  United  Kingdom  98  oz.,  while  the  average  for  the 
last  ten  years  in  Australia  reached  116*8  oz.  or  7*3  lb. 
per  head. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  this  bears  comparison 
with  the  annual  consumption  of    meat  in    pounds    per 


90        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

head.  Australia  is  again  at  the  top  with  233  lb., 
Great  Britain  comes  third  with  109  lb.,  and  Canada 
fourth  with  90  lb.  In  this  case  the  United  States 
occupy  second  place  with  150  lb.  of  meat  per  head. 
It  may  only  be  a  coincidence  that  in  these  four  countries 
there  are  more  patent  medicines  sold — especially  potions 
for  dyspepsia  and  pills  for  constipation — than  in  all  other 
countries  in  the  world  put  together. 

Tea  is  the  dried  and  prepared  leaf  of  Cammelia  thea, 
a  plant  which  is  indigenous  to  the  southern  part  of  Asia. 
It  is  sold  as  green  and  black  tea,  the  former  containing 
much  more  tannin  on  account  of  its  method  of  prepara- 
tion for  the  market. 

The  chemical  constituents  of  tea  are  very  numerous, 
but  tannin  or  tannic  acid  and  caffeine  or  theine  are  the 
ingredients  that  are  physiologically  active.  The  flavour 
is  determined  by  an  essential  or  volatile  oil.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa  contain  the 
same  active  principle,  variously  designated  theine,  caf- 
feine, or  theobromine  according  to  its  origin,  but  possess- 
ing the  same  chemical  formula  and  action.  Teas  contain 
from  2  to  4  per  cent,  of  caffeine  and  14  to  25  per  cent, 
of  tannic  acid,  according  to  the  district  in  which  they 
are  growm. 

The  refreshing  and  stimulating  feeling  experienced  by 
tea-drinkers  is  due  to  the  caffeine,  and  the  deleterious 
effect  so  often  produced  on  the  digestive  processes  is  clue 
to  the  tannic  acid.  For  this  reason  it  is  important  to 
prepare  tea  for  drinking  purposes  in  such  a  way  that 
it  may  contain  the  greatest  quantity  of  caffeine  with 
the  minimum  of  tannic  acid.  Fortunately  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  doing  this,  as  the  caffeine  is  rapidly  extracted 
on  the  addition  of  boiling  water,  whereas  the  tannic  acid 
is  extracted  more  slowly.     Practically  all    the   caffeine 


DRINK  91 

will  be  removed  from  the  tea  leaves  by  boiling  water  in 
five  minutes,  whereas  it  takes  more  than  half  an  hour  to 
remove  all  the  tannic  acid. 

To  obtain  the  greatest  benefit  and  pleasure  from  a  cup 
of  tea  boiling  water  should  be  poured  over  the  leaves, 
allowed  to  stand  for  three  to  eight  minutes  according  to 
the  quality,  and  then  poured  off  to  be  drunk  immediately. 
The  water  should  be  fairly  soft,  quite  fresh,  and  just 
brought  to  the  boiling-point.  The  tea  should  be  pre- 
pared in  a  warmed,  closed,  and  covered  vessel — and 
nothing  beats  the  brown  earthenware  pot — and  the  fluid 
should  not  be  allowed  to  boil  whilst  the  infusion  is  going 
on.  By  this  means  the  volatile  oil,  and  therefore  the 
flavour,  as  well  as  much  of  the  stimulating  property, 
is  preserved,  and  the  tannic  acid  and  other  objectionable 
extractives  left  in  the  leaf.  Prolonged  boiling  or  stewing 
destroys  the  volatile  oil,  and  extracts  more  tannic  acid, 
thus  rendering  the  drink  less  palatable  and  more  detri- 
mental to  the  digestive  system. 

As  there  is  no  nourishment  in  tea,  and  it  is  often 
necessary  to  take  every  possible  means  to  introduce 
nutriment  into  a  patient,  Sir  Andrew  Clarke  suggested 
that  boiling  milk  might  be  poured  over  the  tea  leaves 
and  a  maximum  of  caffeine  with  a  minimum  of  tannic 
acid  extracted  in  this  way. 

It  is  said  that  the  Japanese  make  their  tea  with  warm 
but  not  boiling  water,  pouring  it  on  the  leaves  in  a  cup 
and  drinking  it  almost  at  once.  As  by  this  means 
practically  no  tannic  acid  would  be  obtained  and  only 
a  very  small  quantity  of  caffeine  and  volatile  oil,  an 
explanation  is  given  of  the  reason  why  they  can  drink 
it  all  through  the  day  with  little,  if  any,  detriment  to 
their  health.  In  England,  where  a  similar  custom  is 
followed  by  many  of  the  lower  classes,  who  keep  the  tea 


92        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


pot  constantly  stewing  on  the  bob,  antemia,  dyspepsia, 
and  nervousness  are  common  complaints. 

The  action  of  tea  upon  the  sj^stem  has  produced  much 
controversy.  Some  say  it  increases,  whilst  others  say  it 
diminishes,  tissue  waste.  What  is  quite  clear  is  that 
it  is  a  gentle  stimulant  to  the  nervous  system,  is  very 
refreshing,  removes  or  relieves  the  sensation  of  fatigue, 
and  thus  allows  of  increased  exertion  without  food.  Its 
staying  powers  have  been  frequently  tested  by  explorers 
and  soldiers  on  the  march.  It  promotes  cheerfulness 
and  a  lively  flow  of  ideas,  relieves  slight  headache, 
quietens  the  circulation  and  stimulates  the  sweat  glands 
in  a  greater  degree  than  a  similar  quantity  of  hot  water. 

It  has,  however,  a  tendency  to  produce  insomnia,  and 
in  large  quantities  slow  digestion,  and  causes  irritation 
and  catarrh  of  the  stomach,  with  the  frequent  accompani- 
ment of  flatulence  and  constipation.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  its  use  is  not  followed  by  any  depressant  after- 
effects ;  but  this  would  be  entirely  contrary  to  any 
conceivable  definition  of  a  stimulant,  because  reaction  is 
always  equal  to  the  action  produced. 

Clouston  says :  "  Its  use  in  moderate  quantity  is  not 
followed  by  any  injurious  reaction,  and  is  not  prejudicial 
to  any  of  the  functions  of  the  body."  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  statement  is  very  guarded,  and  that  the  whole 
question  turns  upon  the  definition  of  moderation.  It 
is  precisely  here  that  the  difiiculty  arises,  and  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  in  common  with  all  so- 
called  stimulants,  its  use  is  much  more  frequently  fol- 
lowed by  chronic  intoxication  than  is  usually  supposed. 
Sufferers  from  this  ailment  do  not  reel  about  the  streets 
like  those  who  are  under  the  influence  of  alcohol,  but 
they  may  display  muscular  tremor,  irregular  heart  action, 
breathlessness,  nervousness,  headache,  neuralgia,  ringing 


DRINK  93 

of  the  ears,  accompanied  by  indigestion  and  constipation, 
and  severe  mental  and  physical  depression. 

It  is  doubtful  to  what  particular  ingredient  these 
symptoms  are  to  be  ascribed,  but  most  authors  are 
inclined  to  set  them  down  to  the  effect  of  the  caffeine. 
It  is  a  methyl-xanthin  or  purin,  and  allied  to  uric  acid, 
so  that  theoretically  it  ought  to  bring  about  just  such 
maladies  as  are  induced  by  exogenous  purin s.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  I  have  made  many  observations  on 
people  suffering  from  headache  of  a  periodical  nature, 
sometimes  accompanied  by  sickness,  at  other  times  not, 
but  always  of  that  character  so  generally  ascribed  to 
the  condition  known  as  "  uricacid-se.mia."  Where  the 
patients  refused  to  adopt  a  purin-free  diet  they  were 
persuaded — as  a  compromise — to  give  up  tea,  coffee,  and 
cocoa.  In  all  the  cases  noted,  after  a  preliminary 
exacerbation  of  the  headache,  it  disappeared  never  to 
return,  even  although  in  six  months'  time  small  c|uau titles 
of  the  beverages  were  resumed.  Clearly,  such  headaches 
were  due  to  the  ingestion  of  a  greater  quantity  of  caffeine 
than  the  system  could  dispose  of,  but  whenever  the 
dose  of  the  poison  was  reduced  to  the  amount  the  body 
could  tolerate  the  bad  effects  ceased. 

Probably  in  headache  the  temporary  relief  obtained 
by  drinking  a  cup  of  tea  is  due  to  the  fact  that  caffeine 
quickly  acts  as  a  diuretic,  and  leads  to  an  increased 
excretion  of  the  nitrogenous  elements,  especially  of  urea 
and  the  fatigue  products  generally.  This  is  only  possible 
with  moderate  doses,  because  it  has  been  experimentally 
demonstrated  that,  the  greater  the  quantity  of  caffeine 
absorbed,  the  less  in  proportion  is  it  metabolised,  and 
hence  it  accumulates  in  the  system  and  produces  ita 
toxic  effects. 

I  am  quite  convinced  that  teetotallers  are  acting  on 


94        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

a  mistaken  notion  when  they  imagine  tea  may  be  drunk 
with  impimity,  and  that,  instead  of  recommending  it 
wholesale,  they  should  institute  an  inquiry  as  to  whether 
it  may  not  be  answerable  for  many  of  the  lamentable 
lapses  into  inebriety  so  common  among  women  of  all 
classes  to-day.  Doubtless  much  depends  upon  personal 
idiosyncrasy,  and  there  are  many  people  who  ought,  in 
the  interests  of  their  health,  to  resist  the  seductions  of 
the  tea-pot.  Those  who  possess  a  highly  sensitive 
nervous  system  are  much  better  without  this  beverage. 
It  must  also  be  avoided  in  all  irritable  conditions  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  in  dyspepsia,  in  constipation,  and 
nervousness  or  insomnia. 

Many  conditions  other  than  these  mentioned  have 
been  attributed  to  tea-drinking,  such  as  multiple  neuritis, 
and  it  has  even  been  considered  a  contributory  factor  in 
producing  insanity,  although  this  is  more  likely  to  have 
been  the  result  of  the  diminished  quantity  of  nourishment 
usually  taken  by  great  tea-drinkers. 

The  fate  of  many  professional  tea-testers  might  be  a 
sufficient  demonstration  that  the  above  statements  are 
not  overdrawn. 

Used  in  moderation,  then,  by  the  average  person,  tea 
ought  to  produce  nothing  but  good  results.  It  is  best  to 
confine  its  use  to  the  meal  usually  called  afternoon  tea, 
and  to  sip  two  small  teacupfuls  with  plenty  of  cream  and 
as  little  sugar  as  possible.  On  account  of  the  well-known 
effect  it  has  of  retarding  the  digestion  of  starchy  foods, 
nothing  should  be  eaten  at  this  time.  When  tea  is 
taken  at  breakfast  it  should  be  sipped  after  all  the  food 
has  been  eaten.  It  should  never  be  taken  after  5  p.m. 
Coffee.  Coffee  is  the  seed  or  bean  of  Coffea  ara,bica,  a  small 

tree  of  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  now  cultivated  widely  in 
tropical  and  warm  climates.     Like  tea,  coffee  consists  of 


DRINK 


95 


three  important  ingredients,  caffeine,  tannin,  and  a 
volatile  oil  with  the  addition  of  sugar,  gum,  and  a  little 
fat.  In  order  to  develop  the  flavour  more  perfectly,  these 
beans  are  roasted,  and  the  constituents  are  thereby 
altered.  The  sugar  is  converted  into  caramel,  and  the 
volatile  substances  collectively  designated  caffeone. 

The  active  ingredients  of  coffee  are  caffeine  and 
caffeone,  and,  although  the  chief  effects  produced  on  the 
body  are  due  to  the  caffeine,  still  the  cerebral  stimulation 
and  activity  ensuing  on  a  cup  of  coffee  properly  roasted 
are  much  greater  than  those  produced  by  an  infusion  of 
raw  coffee.  As  this  latter  contains  the  same  quantity  of 
caffeine,  caffeone  must  be  responsible  for  some  of  the 
stimulating  effects  of  hot  coffee.  It  must  also  be  tlie 
source  of  the  laxative  property  of  coffee  (caffeine  being 
innocent  of  such  an  effect),  and  doubtless  is  the  cause  of 
the  digestive  symptoms  associated  with  the  excessive  use 
of  coffee  as  a  beverage. 

Dyspepsia  is  not  induced  so  easily  by  coffee  as  by  tea, 
although  it  causes  dilatation  of  the  abdominal  blood 
vessels,  producing  a  feeling  of  fulness  in  the  abdomen, 
with  a  tendency  to  piles  in  some  persons.  The  general 
action  of  coffee  upon  the  system  is  wonderfully  Hke  that 
of  tea,  relieving  fatigue  and  mental  exhaustion,  slowing 
and  strengthening  the  heart's  action  and  producing  wake- 
fulness and  insomnia.  It  is  said  to  diminish  tissue  waste 
and  allow  of  increased  exertion  without  the  necessity  for 
taking  extra  food. 

Civilisation  has  for  so  long  depended  upon  the  stimulus  The 
provided  by  tea  and  coffee,  that  it  has  been  stated  in  g^^ 
some  quarters  that  these  drugs  are  essential  articles  of 
our  diet.  The  mere  fact  that  the  greatest  vigour  of  body 
and  mind  is  compatible  with  comijlete  abstinence  from 
them  should  serve  to  controvert  such  an  opinion.  That 
7 


96        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

it  should  prevail,  however,  rather  lends  support  to  my 
view  that  a  large  section  of  the  community  is  under  the 
influence  of  a  caffeine  craving.  The  truth  of  this  conten- 
tion can  easily  be  demonstrated  by  almost  any  one  who  is 
bold  enough  to  cease  drinking  tea  and  coffee  for  even  a 
week.  The  unbearable  headache  which  will  torture  his 
days  and  nights  and  the  constant  hankering  after  a  cup 
of  tea  will  soon  convince  him  that  he  is  under  the  spell 
of  the  drug.  It  will  also  be  a  wholesome  reminder  to 
some  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  deriding  the 
"  craving  "  for  alcohol. 

An  enormous  amount  of  will-power  is  necessary  to 
break  off  the  habitual  use  of  any  drug,  and  tea  and  coffee 
are  no  exceptions  to  the  rule.  For,  after  all,  every 
cupful  of  tea  or  coffee  is  equivalent  to  a  dose  of  a  drug, 
and  not  by  any  means  an  infinitesimal  dose,  but  the  full 
pharmacopoeial  allowance.  Each  cup  of  tea  or  coffee 
contains  the  equivalent  of  2|-  grains  of  citrate  of  caffeine, 
a  white  drug  kept  on  the  shelves  of  every  chemist  in  the 
world.  I  would  commend  this  fact  to  the  attention  of 
the  by  no  means  inconsiderable  section  of  people  who 
are  so  loud  in  their  denunciations  of  the  medical  man 
who  occasionally  allows  himself  to  prescribe  a  "  drug  "  of 
the  more  conventional  category.  A  drug  is  a  drug 
whether  it  be  self-administered  in  sips  from  a  china  cup 
or  gulped  down  from  a  nauseous  bottle  with  or  without 
a  medical  prescription. 

There  are  many  who  are  distinctly  injured  by  the  use 
of  coffee  as  of  tea.  It  should  be  eschewed  by  the  highly 
nervous,  by  those  who  suffer  from  palpitation  or  almost 
any  heart  condition,  by  dyspeptics  and  bilious  people,  and 
it  should  never  be  given  to  children.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  who  find  it  most  valuable  and  of  great 
service  in  assisting  them  to  combat  constipation. 


DRINK  97 

It  may  be  stated  generally  that  those  who  rely  on  tea 
and  coffee  as  stimulants  are  laying  up  for  themselves  a 
store  of  trouble,  as  the  reaction  must  be  faced  some  day. 
Those,  on  the  contrary,  who  partake  of  them  chiefly  as  a 
pleasant  means  of  flavouring  water  or  milk  will  be  in 
no  danger  of  taking  them  so  strong  as  to  produce  tlie 
physiological  effect  of  caffeine  and  consequent  damage  to 
their  bodies.  Taken  to  excess — and  this  is  always  a 
relative  term — nervous  and  gastric  disturbances  are  cer- 
tain to  arise.  These  include  giddiness,  headache,  tremors, 
insomnia,  flatulence,  loss  of  appetite,  and  biliousness. 

To  prepare  coffee  properly,  the  beans  should  be  roasted 
and  ground  to  a  fine  powder  at  the  time  they  are  re- 
quired, as  prolonged  keeping  causes  them  to  deteriorate 
in  value.  Boiling  water  should  be  poured  on  the 
powder,  and  after  a  very  few  minutes  poured  off  and 
drunk.  If  it  be  boiled  too  long  it  loses  its  aroma  and 
takes  up  too  large  a  proportion  of  tannic  acid.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that,  if  these  instructions  be  followed  and  a 
bad  result  ensues,  then  adulteration  with  a  foreign 
substance,  e.g.  peas,  beans,  acorns,  chicory  or  caramel,  has 
taken  place. 

Cafe-au-lait  is  prepared  by  milk  being  boiled  with 
coffee,  and  in  many  cases  after  a  short  use  produces 
"biliousness."  Some  fluid  extracts  of  coffee  are  quite 
agreeable  and  palatable. 

There  is  a  custom  amongst  students  and  literary  men 
of  drinking  coffee  to  induce  wakefulness,  in  order  that 
necessary  work  may  be  performed.  This,  of  course,  is  a 
most  unnatural  proceeding,  and,  although  it  may  be 
permissible,  undue  prolongation  of  the  habit  can  only 
end  in  "  nervous  breakdown  "  or  neurasthenia. 

This  beverage    was   introduced  into  Europe   about  a  Cocoa, 
century  before  tea  and  coffee,  and  is  obtained  from  the 


98        THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

seeds  of  Theobroma  cacao.  They  break  readily  into 
halves  called  cocoa  nibs.  The  chemical  composition  of 
cocoa  is  not  constant.  On  an  average  it  consists  of  50 
per  cent,  of  fat,  13  per  cent,  of  starch,  a  variable 
quantity  of  protein  and  woody  fibre,  and  1  to  3  per 
cent,  of  an  active  principle  called  theobromine. 

In  its  physiological  action  on  the  human  system  theo- 
bromine is  very  similar  to  caffeine,  but  it  is  much  weaker, 
and,  as  it  occurs  in  extremely  small  quantities  in  the 
ordinary  preparations  of  cocoa  and  chocolate,  its  effect 
may  almost  be  disregarded.  This  may  be  the  reason 
why  the  use  of  cocoa  does  not  tend  to  produce  wakeful- 
ness or  muscular  tremors,  as  tea  and  coffee  do.  Nor  does 
the  mind  become  so  alert  under  the  influence  of  cocoa, 
although  it  relieves  the  feeling  of  muscular  exhaustion  in 
much  the  same  way  as  tea  and  coffee. 

It  likewise  differs  from  these  two  beverages  in  that  it 
possesses  nutritious  properties,  which  are  chiefly  due  to 
the  fat  it  contains.  Although  much  of  this  is  lost  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  a  sufficient  quantity  remains  to 
have  a  decided  food  value.  Two  teaspoonfuls  of  the 
powder  are  used  to  prepare  a  cupful  of  the  beverage,  and 
this  will  yield  40  calories.  When  prepared  with  milk 
and  sugar  it  can  be  made  to  yield  400  calories,  about 
one- sixth  part  of  what  is  required  in  a  day.  It  is  there- 
fore a  valuable  food  in  malnutrition  when  it  can  be 
digested.  For,  although  it  contains  no  tannic  acid  and 
is  not  liable  to  set  up  catarrh  of  the  stomach  or  the 
nervous  symptoms  of  tea  and  coffee,  it  is  liable  to  cause 
indigestion  on  account  of  its  contained  fat  and  sugar. 
Those  preparations,  therefore,  which  contain  the  smallest 
amount  of  fat  are  to  be  preferred  for  dyspeptics,  although, 
of  course,  their  food  value  is  much  diminished  by  its 
extraction. 


DRINK  99 

Flour,  starch,  arrowroot,  alkalis,  and  various  chemicals 
are  sometimes  added  to  cocoa  for  purposes  of  adulteration. 

Chocolate  is  cocoa  to  which  has  been  added  sugar, 
with  perhaps  a  little  starch,  and  a  flavouring  agency, 
usually  vanilla  or  cinnamon. 

Food  reformers  and  others  who  believe  that  the  active 
principles  of  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa  have  in  some  way  a 
toxic  influence  on  the  body  have  exercised  their  ingenuity 
in  manufacturing  many  substitutes.  These  have  nearly  ^ 
all  the  cardinal  defect  that  they  are  frankly  imitations  of 
the  three  beverages  named,  and,  as  they  are  in  every  way 
poor  substitutes,  they  are  by  no  means  popular.  They 
chiefly  consist  of  well-known  grains  such  as  wheat  and 
barley,  roasted  and  ground  to  resemble  coffee. 

Aerated  waters  are  much  in  vogue  for  dietetic 
purposes.  The  carbonic  acid  in  them  stimulates  the 
stomach,  and  they  have  a  clean,  sharp,  and  agreeable 
taste ;  but  they  are  often  unsuitable  on  account  of  their 
tendency  to  distend  the  stomach.  They  have  the  great 
advantage  that  well-known  brands  are  free  from  microbic 
infection,  and  this  is  an  important  matter  when  travelling 
in  a  foreign  country. 

No  subject  has  given  rise  to  a  greater  amount  of  The  Use 
controversy  than  the  physiological  action  of  alcohol.  A  ^^  lutoxi- 
whole  library  of  books  has  been  written  on  the  subject — 
most  of  them  condemning  its  use  both  in  health  and 
disease  in  no  unstinted  terms,  although  some  of  them 
advance  quite  as  much  evidence  in  favour  of  its  moderate 
and  regular  daily  use.  Perhaps  this  remarkable  difter- 
euce  of  opinion  may  be  somewhat  accounted  for  by 
the    confusion   between    alcohol    and    alcohol-containing 

o 

beverages. 

No  one  in  his  senses  would  think  of  drinking  absolute 
alcohol,  and  very  few  w^ould  even  drink  brandy  or  whisky 


100      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

neat,  which  contain  quite  5  0  per  cent,  of  water.  Clearly, 
the  action  of  alcohol  on  the  human  body  is  vastly 
different  with  a  3  per  cent,  solution  such  as  is  found  in 
Munich  beer,  and  a  5  0  per  cent,  solution  such  as  prevails 
in  some  spirituous  liquors.  It  is  doubtless  time  that  the 
effect  of  an  alcoholic  beverage  on  man  is  deleterious  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  alcohol  it  contains,  but 
is  modified  in  some  degree  by  the  other  ingredients. 

In  the  following  short  description  of  the  physiological 
action  of  alcohol  my  remarks  must  be  considered  as 
referring  in  the  main  to  alcohol  the  drug.  For  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that,  in  common  with  tea,  coffee,  and 
tobacco,  alcohol  is  a  drug,  and  only  differs  from  them  in 
one  important  characteristic — that,  whereas  they  produce 
no  structural  alteration  in  the  body,  alcohol  even  in  quite 
moderate  doses  has  a  tendency  to  cause  degeneration  or 
deterioration  of  the  bodily  tissues. 

On  all  tissues  with  which  it  comes  into  contact 
alcohol  acts  as  an  irritant,  and  this  may  be  considered 
the  secret  of  its  malign  effects.  It  rapidly  abstracts 
water  £rom  living  matter  and  precipitates  albumin. 
Hence,  if  held  in  the  mouth  for  a  few  seconds,  it  turns 
the  mucous  membrane  white  and  stunulates  the  secretion 
of  an  enormous  quantity  of  watery  saliva.  This  is  a 
beneficial  process — an  effort  of  Natiu'e  to  minimise  its 
irritant  effect. 

The  application  of  alcohol  to  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  produces  by  reflex  action  a  stimulating 
effect,  and  when  one  wishes  to  obtain  this  without  any 
of  the  after  effects  caused  by  its  absorption  into  the 
system,  it  is  only  necessary  to  dip  the  finger  into  some 
vrbisky  or  brandy  and  water  and  rub  it  round  the  gums 
and  inside  the  cheeks.  In  the  stomach  similar  changes 
are  brought  about,  the  mucous  membrane  is  congested 


DRINK  loi 

and  an  increased  quantity  of  mucus  secreted,  more 
gastric  juice  is  formed,  and  the  movements  of  the 
stomach  are  strengthened  and  quickened. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  alcohol  in  dietetic  quantities 
shortens  the  time  required  for  the  digestion  of  a  meal 
by  half  an  hour,  and  this  may  be  so,  but  it  is  known 
that  5  per  cent,  solutions  retard,  and  20  per  cent. 
solutions  stop  digestion.  Other  medical  authorities 
declare  that  two  tablespoonfuls  of  brandy  delay  the 
digestion  of  a  meal  in  the  stomach  by  half  an  hour. 
In  any  case,  moderate  amounts  taken  frequently, 
especially  on  an  empty  stomach,  ultimately  produce 
catarrh  of  this  organ,  which  is  the  explanation  of  the 
morning  sickness  of  the  alcoholic. 

In  two  minutes  after  heing  swallowed,  alcohol  reaches 
the  blood,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  its  full  effects  are 
produced.     Its  action  on  the  blood  is  threefold  : — 

(1)  It    forms   a   compound   with   the   heemogiobin, 

and  thus  causes  that  substance  to  part  with 
its  oxygen  more  slowly. 

(2)  It  prevents  the  elimination  of  its  waste  matters. 

(3)  It    paralyses    the    phagocytes — those    friendly 

blood  corpuscles  which  swallow  all  harmful 

germs — and  so  the  body  is  laid  more  open 

to  disease. 

When  it  reaches  the  liver  it  dilates  its  blood  vessels 

and   causes   it   to   be   congested,  the   final   result   beino- 

thickening  of  the  blood  vessels,  catarrh  of  the  bile  ducts, 

and  the  growth  of  connective  tissue  which  presses  upon 

and  impedes  the  activity  of  the  hepatic  cells.     This  is 

the   well-known    cirrhosis   or   so-called   "  giti   drinker's " 

liver.      It    dilates    the    blood    vessels    of    the   skin    and 

creates  a  feeling  of  warmth.      On  account  of  this  action, 

however,  a  large  amount  of  heat  is  lost  from  the  body, 


102      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

so  that  the  warming  effect  is  purely  fictitious,  and  in 
reality  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  lowered.  Hence 
the  danger  of  taking  alcohol  in  cold  weather,  as  it  only 
intensifies  the  depression  of  the  vital  processes. 

Its  claim  to  be  a  food  is  difficult  to  refute,  because 
the  facts  are  so  contradictory.  Two  tablespoonfuls  of 
absolute  alcohol  should  yield  as  much  heat  by  combustion 
as  an  ounce  of  butter,  i.e.  200  calories,  and  it  must  be 
conceded  that  it  is  consumed  in  the  body  and  therefore 
yields  up  heat  and  energy.  This  quantity  of  alcohol, 
which  is  said  by  such  a  good  authority  as  Parkes  to  be 
capable  of  complete  oxidation  in  the  body  m  one  day 
without  producing  any  narcotic  efl'ects  or  any  unchanged 
alcohol  appearing  in  the  urine,  would  be  represented  by 
4  tablespoonfuls  of  brandy  or  whisky,  10  tablespoonfuls 
of  port  or  sherry,  20  tablespoonfuls  of  claret,  hock,  or 
champagne,  and  40  tablespoonfuls  or  1  imperial  pint 
of  English  beer  or  stout  containing  5  per  cent,  of 
alcohol. 

Dr.  Hammond  found  that,  when  he  was  on  an 
insufficient  diet  and  was  losing  weiglit,  the  addition  of 
a  little  alcohol  enabled  him  to  regain  the  loss.  When 
we  inquire  into  the  explanation  of  these  facts  we  find 
that,  although  on  the  one  one  hand  alcohol  creates  a 
little  heat,  on  the  other  it  dissipates  much  more  by 
transpiration  from  the  skin,  and  by  making  the  red 
blood  corpuscles  less  efficient  oxygen  carriers.  It 
creates  a  little  energy,  but  it  is  proved  by  repeated 
experiments  that  less  work  is  done  by  moderate  drinkers 
than  by  total  abstainers.  Parkes'  classical  experiment 
of  the  two  gangs  of  labourers,  one  of  which  was  allowed 
beer  and  the  other  none,  clearly  demonstrated  that  less 
work  could  be  done  by  the  former  than  by  the  latter. 
The  increase  of  weight  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  it 


DllINK  103 

prevents  the  combustion  of  fat,  which  is  stored  up  in 
the  tissues  along  with  some  of  the  waste  products. 

As  it  contains  no  nitrogen,  it  cannot  possibly  act  as 
a  means  of  building  up  the  tissues,  and  instead  of 
lessening  it  increases  the  w\aste  of  the  tissues.  Thus, 
although  from  the  chemical  point  of  view  it  may  be 
claimed  as  a  true  food,  it  is  not  only  a  harmful  one 
but  a  most  expensive  one.  The  combustion  of  a  ten- 
pound  note  may  give  as  much  heat  as  the  burning  of  a 
farthing  rush-light,  but  we  know  which  the  wise  would 
prefer. 

The    experience   of   assurance    companies   has    amply  The  Ab- 
proved  that  the  abstainer's  life,  from  the  business  point  ^^y^'n^ 
of  view,  is  better  than   that  of   the   moderate   drinker,  age. 
The  statistics  of  the  United  Kingdom  Temperance  and 
Provident  Institution  show  that  only  sixty-five  abstainers 
die  for  every  hundred  moderate  drinkers — all  carefully 
selected  lives.     For  every  thousand  adult  male  deaths, 
one  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-two  publicans  and 
only  five  hundred  and  sixty  abstainers  die. 

These  facts  are  being  recognised  by  the  working  man 
and  by  his  employers  in  America,  where  the  temperance 
agitation  is  a  strictly  business  proposition.  During  the 
late  financial  depression  the  Burlington  Eailway 
Company  gave  orders  to  suspend  the  non-abstainers 
amongst  their  employes,  regardless  of  their  length  of 
service.  If  an  employe  of  the  American  Express  Company 
is  found  drinking  on  duty  he  is  discharged,  and  when 
he  commits  this  offence  off  duty  he  is  warned  the  first 
time  and  discharged  the  second  time.  In  the  North 
Western  Eailroad  there  are  no  less  than  forty  thousand 
voluntary  teetotallers. 

In  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  the  expenditure 
under  medical  direction  on  milk  and  alcohol  has  been 


104      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

entirely  reversed — the  former  being  largely  increased 
and  the  latter  being  almost  extinguished.  In  surgery 
alcohol  is  only  occasionally  used  as  a  temporary  agency 
in  shock.  As  a  medicine  it  is  being  more  rarely  used 
every  year,  for  it  is  known  that  even  its  therapeutic  use 
is  capable  of  causing  disease. 

The  great  Friendly  Societies  prefer  a  total  abstainer, 
as  he  has  only  an  average  of  six  weeks'  sickness  as 
compared  with  eleven  weeks  for  the  moderate  drinker. 
We  now  know  that  consumption  and  cancer  are  much 
more  common  among  non-abstainers. 

Alcohol  is  not  really  a  stimulant  but  a  narcotic,  and 
ought  to  be  classed  with  drugs  like  chloroform  and  ether, 
whose  action  is  that  of  a  temporary  exhilarant  with  a 
long  period  of  depression  following  after. 

The  influence  of  alcohol  on  the  moral  nature  is  closely 
bound  up  with  its  effects  on  the  general  nervous  system. 
Briefly,  these  are  as  follows : — 

(1)  A  shrinking  of  the  dendrites  or  feeler-like  pro- 
cesses of  the  brain  cells,  with  re-arrangement  of  their 
internal  particles.  These  changes  have  been  proved  to 
occur  in  animals  in  fifteen  minutes  after  swallowing 
a  small  dose  of  alcohol. 

(2)  A  thickening  of  the  coats  of  the  blood  vessels, 
causing  them  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  blood,  and  hence 
of  nutriment,  to  the  nervous  tissues. 

(3)  The  growth  of  connective  tissue  pressing  on  and 
impeding  the  action  of  the  brain  cells.  Precisely 
similar  changes  occur  in  the  brains  of  the  aged.  Hence 
the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous  system  is  to  induce 
a  condition  of  premature  senile  decay. 

The  higher  functions  of  the  brain,  intellect,  judgment, 
memory,  will,  self-control,  and  reason,  which  are  the  last 
to  be  developed  in  its  evolution,  are  the  first  to  show 


DRINK  105 

signs  of  decay  in  accordance  with  the  "  Law  of 
Dissolution/'  By  degrees  the  drunkard  loses  complete 
control  of  his  will-power,  which  is  replaced  by  mere 
intention.  Finally,  the  reasoning  power  becomes  extinct, 
the  body  is  guided  by  instinct,  even  the  animal  nature 
becomes  debased  and  its  lowest  passions  become 
predominant. 

Twenty  per  cent,  of  all  cases  of  insanity,  and  more 
than  half  of  the  cases  of  suicide,  owe  their  origin  to 
alcohol.  Where  the  use  of  alcohol  is  prohibited  the 
number  of  arrests  for  crime  at  once  falls.  During  the 
recent  terrible  earthquake  at  San  Erancisco  all  places 
for  the  sale  of  alcohol  were  closed,  and,  despite  the 
prevailing  conditions  of  social  anarchy,  the  average 
daily  number  of  arrests  for  crime  was  only  three.  The 
very  day  the  saloons  were  re-opened  no  less  than 
seventy  people  were  arrested,  and  this  number  was  much 
increased  on  subsecj^uent  days. 

It  is   a   notable   fact    that  ordy    10    per   cent,    of   a  Drink  anc 
drunkard's  children  are  physically  and  mentally  normal,  heredity. 
In  a  recent  investigation  on  this  subject  it  was  shown 
that  of  six  hundred  children,  born  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  drunken  mothers,  three  hundred  and  thirty-five 
were  still-born  or  died  "  in  infancy."     Of  the  survivors, 
4   per   cent,    were   epileptic   and    many   were    mentally 
defective.     The    result    of    medical    inspection    in    the 
schools  of  ISTew  York  has  revealed  the  fact  that  53  per  " 
cent,  of  the  children  of  alcoholic  parents  are  "  dullards," 
as    compared    with    10    per    cent,    of    the    children    of 
abstainers.     Eesearches    on    animals    which    had   small 
C|uantities  of  alcohol   administered   in   their  food   prove 
decisively   that   the    hereditary   factor   in   alcoholism   is 
not  imaginary. 

With  these  facts  before  us  it  is  hardly  to  be  wondered 


io6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

that  the  verdict  of  practically  all  medical  men  is  that 
alcohol  is  unnecessary  in  health,  and  that  those  who  are 
not  possessed  of  strong  self-control  or  who  have  a 
tendency  to  gout  or  any  degenerative  changes  in  their 
tissues  are  much  better  without  it.  Many  people  appear  to 
be  able  to  take  it  in  moderation  without  harm,  but,  as  they 
grow  older  most  of  them  find  they  are  not  so  well  when 
they  use  it  habitually,  and  either  give  it  up  or  take  it 
more  rarely.  The  abuse  of  alcohol  in  any  form  is  ahvays 
followed  by  harmful  results. 

Most  medical  men  would  also  agree  that  it  is  likewise 
useless  in  sickness,  as  equally  potent  substitutes  can  now 
be  obtained.  In  every  case  in  which  it  is  prescribed  in 
disease  it  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  medicine,  and  just 
as  much  care  should  be  used  in  its  dispensing  as  is 
usual  with  other  drugs.  These  remarks  apply  particul- 
arly to  whisky,  brandy,  gin,  and  rum,  which  are  simply 
solutions  of  alcohol  in  water. 

Wines  are  prepared  by  the  fermentation  of  grape  juice, 
and  are  composed  of  water,  alcohol,  acids,  ether,  sugar, 
extractives,  and  glycerine.  Their  influence  on  digestion 
is  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  their  contained 
alcohol.  One  'pev  cent,  of  sherry  in  the  stomach  con- 
tents entirely  stops  digestion,  a  result  which  is  probably 
due  to  the  acid  content.  Despite  this  fact,  the  use  of 
wines  in  small  quantities  often  improves  the  appetite  and 
stimulates  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  stomach.  Their 
habitual  use  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  catarrh  of  the 
stomach,  and  to  induce  attacks  of  gout  and  rheumatism 
in  those  predisposed  to  them.  Eed  wines,  on  account  of 
their  contained  tannic  acid,  produce  constipation. 

Malt  liquors  contain  from  o  to  8  per  cent,  of  alcohol 
with  a  little  sugar  and  dextrine.  If  justification  can  be 
found  for  the  habitual  use  of  alcohol  in  any  form,  it  is  in 


DRINK  107 

the  case  of  weak  beer  or  wine  and  water.  Even  total 
abstainers  who  go  to  the  Continent  are  struck  with  the 
air  of  content  and  happiness  which  characterises  the 
family  life  there,  and  it  will  be  found  that  almost 
invariably  lager  beer  or  claret  and  water  is  used  as  a 
beverage.  Although  a  total  abstainer,  I  have  always 
made  it  a  practice  on  Continental  trips  to  partake  of 
the  delightful  Munich  or  other  lager  beer,  and  have  been 
inclined  to  ascribe  to  its  use  much  of  the  beneficial  effect 
of  my  holiday.  I  think  that  a  factor  in  the  solution  of 
the  intemperance  problem  in  this  country  would  be  to 
allow  the  practice  of  free  brewing  and  to  pass  a  law 
decreeing  that  beer  shall  contain  no  more  than  3  per 
cent,  of  alcohol. 

The  occasional  use  of  alcohol  as  a  medicine  in  a  tem- 
porary indisposition  is  not  likely  to  be  harmful,  and  no 
one  should  be  so  fanatical  as  to  object  to  it  either  in  his 
own  person  or  that  of  any  one  under  his  control  or 
supervision. 

Tobacco  is  now  in  such  common  use,  especially  after  Tobacco, 
meals,  as  to  be  considered  almost  in  the  light  of  a 
dietetic  agency.  It  is  included  in  the  British,  German, 
and  United  States  Pharmacopoeias,  and  has  powerful 
emetic  and  nauseating  properties,  acting  in  neurosis  as  a 
paralyser  of  the  muscles  of  respiration  and  depressant  of 
the  action  of  the  heart.  Before  the  days  of  chloroform 
its  use  was  counselled  as  an  anaesthetic  and  pain-kiiliug 
agency  for  surgical  operations,  but  to-day  it  is  only 
employed  for  smoking  in  pipes,  cigars  or  cigarettes, 
chewing  and  snuffing. 

Its  moderate  use  is  accompanied  by  a  decreased 
necessity  for  food  without  loss  of  strength,  as  has  been 
amply  proved  by  soldiers  and  sailors.  This  is,  of  course, 
only  a  temporary  effect,  due  to  the  sedative  effects  of 


io8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

tobacco  on  the  nervous  system.  If  the  expedient  were 
persisted  in  for  any  length  of  time,  weight  and  strength 
would  both  be  lost,  but  there  is  ample  proof  to  show 
that  diu'ing  periods  of  strain  or  deprivation  of  food 
it  is  able  to  postpone  a  breakdown.  It  has  an  un- 
doubted value  in  stimulating  the  peristaltic  action  of  the 
bowels,  and  many  victims  of  constipation  find  the  post- 
prandial pipe  a  sovereign  remedy  for  their  affliction.  It  is 
indulged  in  largely  because  of  its  sedative  effects,  which 
in  those  accustomed  to  its  use  are  considerable. 

Smoking  is  undoubtedly  a  habit  acquired  from  the 
exercise  of  the  imitative  faculty  in  man,  and  from  the 
fact  that  women  rarely  indulge  in  it  and  yet  have  longer 
lives  than  men  and  probably  no  fewer  worries,  it  cannot 
be  considered  either  necessary  or  conducive  to  long- 
evity. Athletes  in  training  generally  avoid  it,  so  that 
it  is  not  a  factor  which  contributes  to  increased  health 
and  strength.  It  is  undoubtedly  deleterious  to  many, 
especially  to  those  with  highly  sensitive  nervous  systems. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  few  wdiiffs  of  a  cigarette 
to  produce  giddiness,  cold  feet,  and  palpitation  in  such 
persons.  It  has  been  clearly  established  that  it  is  pre- 
judicial to  the  growth  of  young  people,  and  it  should 
never  be  used  by  those  who  have  not  attained  their 
full  strength  and  stature.  As  it  is  generally  abused, 
it  is  more  harmful  than  useful,  and  should  never  be  in- 
dulged in  by  those  who  have  not  a  good  circulation. 

It  used  to  be  considered  that  there  was  no  nicotine  in 
tobacco  smoke,  but  it  has  been  lately  demonstrated  that 
all  the  baneful  effects  of  smoking  are  due  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  nicotine.  A  person  absorbs  nicotine  according 
to  the  extent  of  absorbent  surface  in  contact  with  the 
column  of  smoke.  Hence  those  who  inhale  cigarettes, 
and  thereby  add  to  the  mouth,  the  mucous  membrane  of 


DRINK  109 

the  larynx,  windpipe,  and  larger  bronchial  tuljes,  are 
exposing  three  times  more  surface  for  the  absorption  of 
nicotine,  and  suffer  accordingly.  Many  a  man  can  smoke 
one  large  strong  cigar  in  the  ordinary  way  without  any 
bad  result,  whereas  the  inhalation  of  three  cigarettes  con- 
taining an  infinitely  smaller  quantity  of  nicotine  will 
produce  nausea,  giddiness,  and  palpitation. 

There  is  no  proof  that  smokers  are  more  liable  to 
cancer  of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  tongue  than  other  people, 
but  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  use  of  a  pipe  which 
irritates  the  lips  is  conducive  to  the  origin  of  cancer  there. 

Finally,  nasal  catarrh  and  throat  irritation  are  much 
more  common  in  smokers  than  amongst  their  fellows. 

Peactical  Summary. 

1.  Two  or  three  pints  of  fluid  ought  to  be  drunk  each 
day.  Neglect  to  do  this  often  occasions  insomnia  and 
other  troubles. 

2.  "Water  is  the  best  fluid  for  drinking  purposes,  and 
five  or  six  glasses  should  be  taken  each  day.  It  is  unwise 
to  drink  much  at  meal  times,  as  the  stomach  cannot 
deal  with  fluid  to  any  great  extent. 

3.  Hot  water  is  more  easily  tolerated  by  the  stomach 
than  cold  water.  It  is  also  more  valuable  for  relaxin'"'- 
spasm  and  cleansing  the  lining  membrane  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal. 

4.  A  certa,in  amount  of  the  benefit  derived  from  resi- 
dence at  a  foreign  Spa  is  due  to  the  fluid  consumed  there. 

5.  Drinking  large  quantities  of  water  has  no  influence 
per  se  on  the  deposition  of  fat.  If  taken  at  meal  times, 
however,  it  causes  a  better  distribution  of  the  food  par- 
ticles, and  hence  in  this  way  assists  in  producing  obesity. 
It  is  better  to  be  taken  between  meals. 


no      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

6.  Water  may  be  rendered  quite  safe  by  boiling  and 
quite  pure  by  distillation. 

7.  Tea  should  always  be  made  by  pouring  boiling 
water  on  the  leaves,  allowing  it  to  stand  for  from  three 
to  eight  minutes,  then  pouring  off  and  drinking  immedi- 
ately. 

8.  The  drinking  of  tea  tends  to  promote  cheerfulness, 
relieve  slight  headache,  soothe  the  heart,  and  stimulates 
the  secretion  of  sweat.  It  is  liable  to  produce  insomnia 
and  dyspepsia. 

9.  Tea  drinking  in  excess  is  always  harmful,  and  is 
not  free  from  the  suspicion  of  encouraging  the  consump- 
tion of  alcohol. 

10.  Coffee  has  much  the  same  good  and  bad  qualities 
as  tea. 

11.  Cocoa  possesses  some  nutrient  properties,  is  less 
apt  to  produce  indigestion,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  cause 
wakefulness. 

12.  Alcohol,  like  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  is  a  drug,  but 
unlike  them  its  consumption  has  a  tendency  to  produce 
tissue  degeneration. 

13.  Alcohol  is  unnecessary  in  health,  and  although 
from  the  chemical  point  of  view  it  may  be  claimed  as  a 
true  food,  it  is  not  only  an  expensive  but  highly  danger- 
ous one. 

14.  It  is  being  daily  less  used  in  the  treatment  of 
disease,  because  it  is  recognised  that  it  is  more  likely  to 
produce  disease  than  cause  its  amelioration. 

15.  Tobacco  depresses  the  heart,  weakens  the 
muscular  system,  and  is  prejudicial  to  the  growth  of 
young  people. 


CHAPTEE  ly 
WOEK. 


LAW  III.-" I^egular  work  both  of  body  and  mind,  to 
the  full  capacity  of  the  individual,  Is  the  best 
safeguard  against  disease." 

TT  is  much  to  be  feared  that  the  popular  ideal  is  that  The  Un- 
-^     ot  a  lite  ot  pleasure  and  ease,  and  not  one  of  work  """'^^^s 
and  service.     We  are  inclined  to  look  upon  work  as  a  ''"^^■ 
necessary  evil,  and  work  hard  in  order  that  we  may  o-ain 
the  means  to  retire  and  so  rid  ourselves  of  all  future 
work.     We  fail  to  realise  the  meaning  of  work  or  the 
nobility  attached  to  it,  and  rarely  dissociate  it  from  the 
pelf  that  labour  brings.     We  recognise  that    disuse  of 
machmery  causes  it  to  rust,  but  do  not  stop  to  think  that 
disuse  of    any  of    the  bodily  organs  quickly  brings  on 

U-lSGclSG. 

In  all  this  we  are  strangely  at  variance  with  the  cells 
of  our  body  tissues,  which  are  the  seat  of  constant 
change— a  change  due  to  the  fact  that  the  livmg  frame 
IS  incessantly  at  work.  We  are  familiar  with  the  fact 
that_  durmg  life  the  heart  never  ceases  to  beat  the 
respiratory  muscles  to  perform  their  beneficent  purpose 
the  digestive  organs  to  manufacture  their  fluids  and  secre- 
tions, and  the  brain  and  nerve  centres  to  supervise  and 
energise  the  actions   through  which  hfe  is  maintained 


112      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Few  of  us  are,  however,  conversant  with  the  intimate 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  cells  of  our  tissues,  and 
which  in  some  sort  never  cease  from  birth  till  death. 
The  name  which  has  been  applied  by  the  scientist  to 
these  ultimate  life  processes  is  Metabolism — a  word  com- 
pounded of  two  Greek  words  meaning  "  to  throw  beyond," 
but  whose  significance  may  shortly  be  explained  as  an 
exchange  of  material.  It  refers  to  the  process  by  which 
on  the  one  hand  the  dead  food  is  built  up  into  living 
matter,  and  by  which  on  the  other  hand  the  living 
matter  is  broken  down  into  simpler  products  within  the 
cells  of  the  tissues ;  and  it  covers  the  whole  ground  from 
the  entry  of  food  and  drink  into  the  mouth,  and  air  into 
the  lungs,  till  their  excretion  by  the  skin,  lungs,  kidneys, 
liver,  and  bowels.  It  is,  however,  usual  to  confine  the 
word  to  the  actual  changes  between  the  blood  and  the 
ultimate  elements  of  the  tissues. 

The  cells  are  composed  of  a  plastic  living  substance 
called  protoplasm — or  bioplasm — and  each  one  is 
surrounded  by  a  minute  lymph  or  capillary  blood 
vessel.  The  cell,  by  a  process  of  imbibition,  takes  up 
oxygen  and  nutriment  from  the  blood  and  incorporates 
them  into  its  own  substance  by  a  process  spoken  of  as 
AnaboHsm. 

The  blood  not  only  contains  the  fuel,  but  is  the 
circulating  medium  both  for  the  income  and  expenditm^e 
of  the  tissues.  There  are  many  methods  whereby  we 
may  increase  a  banking  account.  The  banker  will 
convert  cheques,  postal  notes,  cash,  bonds,  bills,  scrip,  and 
other  well-known  forms  of  security  into  liquid  assets,  the 
raw  material  of  which  is  the  recognised  circulating 
medium  of  the  financial  world.  In  a  similar  way  the 
varied  and  bulky  ingredients  of  the  bodily  income,  the 
proteins,  the  fats,  the  carbohydrates,  the  salts,  water  and 


WORK  113 

oxygen,  are  converted  into  the  blood,  which  become  the 
liquid  asset  of  the  body. 

It  is  an  inscrutable  mystery  how  each  cell  of  each  The  Secret 
separate  organ  is  able  to  take  from  the  blood  practically  ^[^^ 
the  same  substance,  in  the  proper  proportions,  and  yet  be 
able  to  convert  them  into  its  own  peculiar  substance,  so 
that  in  one  case  brain  tissue,  in  another  bone,  in  another 
muscle,  in  another  nerve  tissue  is  formed.  It  is  a  matter 
of  everyday  observation  that  some  plants  will  grow  on 
one  soil  and  other  plants  on  a  different  kind  of  soil :  but 
here  is  a  case  in  which  from  the  same  soil,  the  same 
nutrient  fluid,  the  most  diverse  structures  are  capable  of 
being  formed.  It  is  no  less  wonderful  that  from  the 
blood,  secreting  glands  whose  cells  are  to  all  intents  and 
pm^poses  similar,  should  evolve  such  varied  products  as 
tears,  milk,  saliva,  etc.  Doubtless,  when  an  explanation 
of  these  processes  is  possible,  the  secret  of  life  will  have 
been  solved. 

The  combustion  which  takes  place  in  the  tissue  cells 
produces  heat  and  energy,  and  waste  products  are  thrown 
off  into  the  blood  in  the  shape  of  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
nitrogenous  products,  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  various 
organs  of  excretion.  There  is  thus  a  double  process 
involved  in  metabolism : — 

(1)  Building  up  of  the  bioplasm  or  assimilation, 
technically  called  Anabolism. 

(2)  Breaking  down  of  the  bioplasm  or  dis-assimilation, 
technically  called  Katabolism. 

If  these  exactly  balance  each  other,  then  equilibrium 
takes  place — a  happy  condition  only  known  in  careful- 
living  people.  We  say  a  happy  condition,  because,  when 
equilibrium  is  estabhshed,  no  energy  is  wasted  in  digesting 
more  food  than  is  required,  and  no  clogging  of  the 
system  results  in  storing  up  fat  which  is  not  necessary. 


114      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

When  assimilation  is  in  excess,  then  fat  is  laid  on ; 
when  dis-assimilation  takes  place  in  excess,  then  fat  and 
flesh  are  lost. 

This  is  a  simple  account  of  the  waste  and  repair  of 
the  tissues.  The  mind  may  be  able  to  picture  the  actual 
state  of  affairs  by  comparing  the  tissues  to  a  brick  wall, 
each  cell  having  its  analogue  in  a  brick  and  the  spaces 
filled  with  mortar  being  comparable  to  the  capillaries. 
After  a  few  years'  wear  it  will  be  noticed  that  here  and 
there  a  brick  is  so  worn  out  that  to  preserve  the  integrity 
of  the  wall  it  has  to  be  replaced,  and  again  in  a  few 
years  the  same  process  takes  place  until,  in  course  of  time, 
the  whole  wall  may  thus  come  to  be  renewed  in  its 
entirety.  Now,  one  can  imagine  a  similar  process  taking 
place  in  the  cells  of  the  tissues.  Instead  of  isolated  cells 
being  worn  out,  all  the  cells  are  equally  affected,  and 
instead  of  the  replacement  occurring  after  the  lapse  of 
years,  there  is  no  actual  replacing  at  all,  but  a  daily 
repair  of  the  damage  to  each  cell,  so  that  in  health  the 
tissue  never  looks  patchy  but  is  always  homogeneous. 

This  fairly  represents  the  ceaseless  working  operations 
of  the  body  tissues.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  when 
the  daily  waste  is  a  little  more  than  the  powers  are  able 
to  repair,  before  long  exhaustion  must  take  place  and  a 
breakdown  is  imminent.  Fortunately,  the  functions  are 
able  to  cope  with  a  good  deal  more  than  is  just  able  to 
make  up  for  the  wear  and  tear,  so  that  in  natural  con- 
ditions such  a  breakdown  is  seldom  brought  about.  In 
the  unnatural  life  of  a  city  the  conditions  are  quite 
different,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  meet  with  so  many 
cases  of  nervous  exhaustion,  or  so-called  neurasthenia. 
This  also  explains  how  in  cases  of  nervous  breakdown 
the  "  tonic  "  which  the  public  constantly  demand  is  so 
seldom  useful,  and  how  a    complete  renovation  of    the 


WORK  115 

whole  body  is  necessary.  In  other  words,  there  is  no 
royal  road  to  cure,  though  there  may  be  short  cuts 
which  will  slightly  diminish  the  length  of  the  journey. 

It  is  said  that  about  one  twenty-fourth  part  of  the 
body  wastes  daily,  so  that  in  about  three  weeks  our 
whole  tissues  are  reproduced,  and  yet  our  personality  is 
wondrously  retained  throughout  the  change. 

So  far  we  have  only  been  considering  the  internal  The 
operations  of  the  human  engine,  and  have  ignored  its  Ea^ine! 
capacity  for  doing  work  as  it  is  generally  understood. 
No  sane  man  keeps  an  engine  for  the  mere  pleasure  of 
watching  its  manifold  and  intricate  mechanism  in  motion. 
He  demands  in  addition  that  it  should  subserve  some 
useful  practical  pm'pose.  In  hke  manner  the  human 
body  exists  for  some  other  purpose  than  simply  to 
exhibit  its  wonderful  anatomy  and  physiology.  To 
justify  its  existence  it  must  be  capable  of  doing  some 
useful  work  in  the  community,  and  to  this  end  it 
has  been  endowed  with  a  desire  to  live  and  evade 
extermination.  This  is  the  physiological  basis  of  all  the 
work  of  a  human  being,  and  from  it  is  evolved  the 
necessity  to  "  energise,"  for  the  cells  of  the  tissues  must 
transform  their  contents  into  energy  of  some  sort  for 
good  or  evil. 

There  are  thus  two  forms  of  work  performed  by  the 
human  body : — 

(1)  Internal  work,  which  enables  it  to  exist,  e.g.  the 
beating  of  the  heart,  the  movements  of  respiration,  the 
digestion  of  food,  etc. 

(2)  External  work,  which  is  that  expended  by  the 
muscles  in  locomotion,  in  the  day's  labours  and  all  the 
voluntary  movements  of  the  body. 

The  two  combined  constitute  the  total  power  which 
the  human  engine  is  capable  of  developing  on  the  fuel, 


ii6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

i.e.  the  food,  with  which  it  is  supplied.  This  is  usually 
measured  by  the  number  of  pounds  or  tons  which  can  be 
lifted  through  a  certain  number  of  feet.  It  is  calculated 
that  to  provide  for  its  own  existence  by  keeping  the 
circulation,  respiration,  and  digestion  in  working  order, 
and  incidentally  maintaining  the  temperature  at  9  8°"4  F., 
no  less  than  2800  foot-tons  of  energy  a,re  expended  each 
day.  In  other  words,  if  employed  to  work  an  elevator, 
this  amount  of  work  would  raise  a  weight  of  2800 
tons  one  foot  high. 

Computed  on  the  same  basis,  the  external  work 
would  amount  to  300  foot-tons  daily,  although  an 
energetic  worker  could  develop  almost  double  this 
amount.  But  in  order  to  get  this  done,  about  five  times 
more  energy  requires  to  be  developed  beyond  that  needed 
for  the  internal  work.  This,  of  course,  means  that  no 
external  work  can  be  done  without  an  increase  in  the 
beating  of  the  heart,  the  number  and  depth  of  respira- 
tions, and  the  supply  of  food.  The  man,  therefore,  who 
produces  300  foot-tons  of  labour  per  day  must  actually 
provide  1500  foot-tons  in  addition  to  the  2800  required 
for  the  body's  own  affairs.  This  means  that  he  generates 
altogether  4300  foot-tons  of  energy.  When  compared 
with  the  best  steam  engine  in  existence,  which  is  only 
able  to  develop  15  per  cent,  of  its  energy  into  actual 
work,  the  rest  being  dissipated  in  heat,  this  shows  an 
advantage  of  quite  5  per  cent. 

Although  this  displays  an  economy  in  force,  human 
labour  is  not  really  as  cheap  as  that  of  the  steam  engine, 
chiefly  because  food  is  much  more  expensive  than  coal. 
Besides  this,  however,  the  larger  part  of  a  man's  earnings 
are  necessarily  spent  in  keeping  his  machine  alive, 
depreciation  and  upkeep  being  daily  debited  to  his 
revenue    account.     For  all  that,  it  is  very  noteworthy 


WORK  117 

that  on  a  daily  consumption  of  eight  pounds  of  food, 
water,  and  air,  the  average  man  can  produce  work  with 
greater  economy  than  the  best  engines  of  his  own 
invention.  As  might  be  expected,  training  still  further 
improves  the  working  output,  and  it  has  been  proved  in 
an  Alpine  ascent  that  whereas  an  untrained  city  tourist 
expended  449  calories  in  work  and  1000  calories  in 
heat,  a  trained  carrier  expended  884  calories  in  work 
and  only  565  in  heat. 

In  these  circumstances  it  is  very  important  to  be  Varieties 
able  to  select  the  best  foods  in  the  proper  proportions  °^  ^"®^- 
to  produce  the  best  results,  not  only  for  the  production 
of  energy  but  also  for  the  repair  of  the  living  machine. 
If  these  be  supplied  in  appropriate  quantity  and  quality, 
then  the  working  of  the  body  goes  on  without  friction, 
and  produces  no  inconvenient  by-products  to  clog  the 
working  parts,  and  the  body  is  enabled  to  retain  that 
elasticity  and  resiliency  which  are  the  prerogatives  of 
health.  To  use  a  part  properly  is  to  keep  it  in  the  best 
working  order. 

All  the  power  the  body  develops  it  derives  from  its 
food,  and  we  speak  of  "  body-building  foods  "  and  "  energy- 
producing  foods."  These,  however,  are  loose  and  artificial 
terms,  as  energy  may  be  produced  from  protein,  which 
is  the  typical  body-building  food  ;  and  fat,  which  is  the 
product  of  starchy,  sugary,  or  fatty  foods  (energy-pro- 
ducers) is  actually  built  into  the  body  substance. 

By  means  of  a  calorimeter  or  heat  measurer  it  is 
possible  to  calculate  the  amount  of  work  which  can  be 
done  on  different  foods  and  the  body's  working  capacity 
viewed  as  a  whole.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
proteins  contribute  to  the  tissue  formation  and  repair, 
and  the  fats,  sugars,  and  starches  are  the  main  source 
of  energy  and  heat.     It  is  calculated  that  100  parts  of 


ii8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

fat  are  equal  in  value  as  energy-producing  material  to 
232  parts  of  starch,  234  parts  of  cane  sugar,  and  213 
parts  of  protein,  or  245  parts  of  flesh. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  study  the  actual  changes 
which  take  place  in  each  of  the  food  elements  in  its 
passage  through  the  body.  During  starvation  it  is 
noted  that  the  fat  and  muscles  suffer  first,  and  the 
heart  and  nervous  system  least  and  last.  Strong  men 
die  when  they  lose  two-fifths  of  their  body  weight, 
young  people  die  much  sooner,  although,  if  water  be 
supplied,  both  will  last  much  longer.  Cold-blooded 
live  longer  than  warm-blooded  animals,  snakes  living 
half  a  year,  and  frogs  living  a  year  without  food.  The 
excretion  of  nitrogenous  material  is  much  diminished  as 
compared  with  the  carbon  output,  showing  that  the  fats 
are  being  used  up  first,  and  the  proteins  not  being 
interfered  with  till  these  have  been  consumed.  All 
this  shows  how  careful  nature  is  to  conserve  the  vital 
parts  of  the  body  even  in  days  of  stress. 

On  a  purely  flesh  diet  man  cannot  live  for  long. 
Lean  beef  contains  1  part  of  nitrogenous  to  a  little 
over  1^  part  of  non-nitrogenous  constituents.  A 
healthy  person  excretes  380  grms.  (12|  oz.)  of  carbonic 
acid  in  expired  air,  urine,  and  fseces,  and  to  replace  this 
amount  at  least  4|  lb.  of  beef  would  need  to  be 
digested  and  assimilated  in  twenty-four  hours.  To 
many  people  this  would  be  an  absolute  impossibility 
even  for  one  day,  but  in  any  case  the  strongest  digestion 
would  soon  give  way  under  it.  Thereafter  less  beef 
would  be  taken,  the  fat  of  the  body  would  soon  be  used 
up,  and  ultimately,  as  digestion  failed  still  more,  the 
proteins  of  the  tissues  themselves  would  be  drawn  upon. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  usual  type  of  a 
perfect  food  is  of  animal  origin,  e.g.  milk,  but  few  men 


WORK  119 

would  have  the  courage  to  tackle  the  8  or  9  pints 
necessary  to  supply  the  requisite  amount  of  daily 
protein.  If  beans,  peas,  or  lentils  were  selected,  as 
they  contain  on  an  average  22  per  cent,  protein  and  55 
per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  it  would  be  theo- 
retically possible  to  maintain  life  on  them,  but  the 
monotony  of  the  diet  would  militate  against  a  lengthened 
experiment.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  all  the  highly 
nitrogenous  foods  contain  large  quantities  of  carbo- 
hydrates as  well,  so  that  it  would  be  possible  to  do 
better  on  the  fleshless  system  if  one  were  compelled  to 
select  only  one  article  of  diet. 

Even  a  carnivorous  animal  can  only  live  on  a  pure 
flesh  diet  free  from  fat,  provided  it  is  very  muscular 
and  pretty  fat  itself.  Even  then  it  requires  to  eat  one- 
twentieth  part  of  its  body  weight  of  flesh  daily.  If  a 
dog  be  fed  on  lean  meat  it  gradually  uses  up  its  own 
fat  and  succumbs.  Thus  dogs  cannot  live  on  a  pure  flesh 
diet,  as  their  digestion  soon  fails.  Probably  no  animal 
is  purely  carnivorous,  but  is  compelled  to  have  recourse 
to  the  vegetable  world  for  some  of  its  supplies.  In  any 
case,  for  purposes  of  health  the  carnivorous  animal  must 
eat  not  only  the  flesh  but  the  fat,  the  bones  and  indeed 
the  whole  carcase  of  its  victim.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  when  a  carnivorous  animal  is  being  put  in 
training  to  do  steady  work,  animal  food  is  entirely  cut 
out  of  its  dietary.  Thus  when  beagles  are  about  to 
start  their  cross-country  work  they  cease  eating  flesh 
and  live  on  cereal  foods  during  all  the  time  they  are 
undergoing  their  hard  work,  for  only  thus  can  they 
keep  fit  and  capable  of  exertion. 

Vegetable  proteins  are  more  easily  digested  by  some  The  Dis- 
people   than    animal    proteins.       Sir    William    Eoberts  ^^  p*^"^ 
pointed   out  that   "  milk   is   much  more  easily  digested 


120      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

by  pancreatic  extract  than  by  artificial  gastric  juice ;  but 
in  the  case  of  egg  albumin  the  advantage  is  entirely  with 
the  gastric  juice."  All  flesh  foods  and  eggs  are  more 
easily  digested  in  the  stomach,  i.e.  in  an  acid  medium, 
whereas  vegetable  albumin  and  milk  proteins  are  more 
easily  digested  in  the  small  bowel,  i.e.  in  an  alkaline 
medium.  When  the  proteins  of  the  food  are  brought 
into  solution,  their  molecules  are  split  up  in  the  intestine 
into  fine  fragments,  mostly  amino-acids.  These  are 
absorbed  through  the  bowel  wall  and  reconverted  into 
specific  body  protein,  much  in  the  same  way  as  a  banker 
converts  a  cheque  into  cash  and  then  again  into  a  cheque 
if  so  required. 

Protein  metabolism  depends  chiefly  on  the  amount  of 
protein  which  is  swallowed,  and,  as  regards  this  quantity, 
there  is  much  difierence  of  opinion.  Chittenden  asserts 
that  0'85  of  a  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight, 
or  about  6  grains  to  the  pound,  are  all  that  is  necessary, 
whereas  Haig  believes  that  health  cannot  be  maintained 
on  less  than  9  grains  per  pound  of  body  weight.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  health  and  nitrogen  equilibrium  can 
be  maintained  on  varying  quantities  of  protein,  and 
perhaps  some  of  the  different  views  may  be  reconciled 
when  it  is  remembered  that  substances  like  gelatine, 
practically  banned  by  Haig,  may  be  used  to  spare  the 
protein  consumption. 

In  vegetable  foods  carbohydrates  and  protein  are  so 
intimately  mixed  that  it  is  possible  to  maintain  nitrogen 
equilibrium  more  easily  on  a  vegetarian  diet  than  on 
any  other.  The  protein  molecule  is  split  up  in  the 
tissues  into  its  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  portions, 
and,  as  this  latter  could  easily  have  been  replaced  by 
carbohydrate  or  fat,  it  is  for  all  practical  purposes  wasted. 
This   is   the   contention  of   those  who  declare  that  the 


WORK  121 

ordinary  three  and  a  half  ounce  protein  standard  is  too 
high.  They  declare  that  a  little  more  than  half  this 
quantity  is  to  be  preferred,  because  the  excess  entails 
greater  work  upon  the  organs  of  excretion.  Their  aim 
is  to  use  protein  only,  or  mainly  as  a  repairing  agency. 

On  a  diet  of  pure  fat  an  animal  can  only  live  for  a 
very  short  time,  dying  even  more  quickly  than  when 
allowed  to  starve,  because  the  fat  interferes  with  the 
metabolism  of  the  proteins.  When  used  as  a  part  of  a 
normal  diet,  however,  its  assimilation  is  a  much  simpler 
matter  than  that  of  protein.  In  the  process  of  digestion, 
fat  is  split  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine,  which,  upon 
being  absorbed  by  the  cells  of  the  small  intestine,  are 
immediately  reconverted  into  fat  and  reach  the  blood 
through  the  lymphatics.  It  is  not  then  built  up  into 
the  cell  substance  like  protein,  but  deposited  in  the 
connective  or  binding  tissue,  and  hence  it  is  very  similar 
in  appearance  and  consistence  to  the  fat  used  in  the 
food.  It  is  well  known  that  cod  liver  oil  is  a  rapid 
fattening  agency,  but  when  its  administration  ceases  the 
adipose  tissue  formed  is  quickly  dissipated.  Mutton  fat, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  firm  and  solid,  and,  when  used  as 
a  dietetic  agency  by  consumptives,  is  a  progenitor  of  a 
much  firmer  and  more  lasting  adipose  tissue.  It  is  more 
easily  assimilated  when  taken  in  hot  milk. 

On  a  purely  carbohydrate  diet  death  occurs  much 
more  rapidly  than  even  on  fats,  as  it  is  much  more  easily 
oxidised  and  got  rid  of.  All  carbohydrates  are  converted 
into  glucose  or  grape  sugar  by  the  processes  of  digestion, 
and,  when  absorbed  by  the  cells  of  the  intestinal  wall 
into  the  blood,  they  cannot  be  identified  again.  We 
know  that  sugar  reaches  the  liver  and  is  there  converted 
into  glycogen,  a  normal  liver  containing  about  10  oz. 
and  the  muscles  rather  less.     It  is  supposed  that  glycogen 


122      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

is  reconverted  into  sugar,  and  in  that  form  conveyed  to 
the  tissues  where  it  is  utilised. 

If  the  tissue  cells  fail  to  burn  up  the  sugar,  then  it 
is  excreted  in  the  urine  and  the  disease  called  diabetes 
or  at  least  glycosuria  is  established.  There  is  reason  at 
the  same  time  to  believe  that  this  simple  explanation  is 
not  exhaustive,  and  that  diabetes  is  dependent  on  a 
much  more  complex  pathological  process.  It  is  known, 
for  example,  that  only  certain  sugars  can  be  converted 
into  glycogen  and  that  some  of  the  sugars  contained  in 
fruit  are  directly  excreted  by  the  kidneys  unchanged. 
Hence  sugar  may  appear  in  the  urine  of  those  who  freely 
eat  of  certain  fruits. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  tissues  cannot  work  for 
long  on  any  one  of  the  alimentary  principles,  for  we 
know  that  man  cannot  live  on  water  alone,  or  salts 
alone.  In  other  words,  the  nutrition  of  the  body 
demands  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  food 
principles.  Of  these,  protein  must  always  be  one.  It 
is  possible  to  live  on  protein  and  fat,  or  protein  and 
carbohydrate,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  live  on  fat  and 
carbohydrate. 

Protein  is  the  body-building  principle,  and  if  too 
little  of  it  be  taken  then  the  protein  of  the  body  tissues 
is  slowly  consumed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  too  much 
be  taken,  one  of  two  results  will  happen,  depending 
upon  the  quantity  of  fats  and  carbohydrates  ingested  at 
the  same  time.  If  a  large  supply  of  these  be  taken, 
then  fat  is  laid  on ;  but  if  they  are  kept  at  a  minimum, 
then  the  whole  metabolism  of  the  body  is  increased  and 
stored  fat  is  rapidly  burned  up. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  body  can  store  up  fat  by 
itself  and  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  glycogen  in  the 
liver   and   muscles,  but   it   is   unable   to   store   up   any 


WORK  123 

appreciable  quantity  of  protein.  It  is  noteworthy,  how- 
ever, that  when  muscular  work  is  increased  there  is  an 
increased  consumption  of  all  the  alimentary  principles. 
More  protein  is  needed,  even  although  all  agree  that 
muscular  work  does  not  increase  the  destruction  of 
that  substance  in  the  body,  and,  as  exercise  causes 
development  of  the  muscles,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume 
that  the  extra  protein  goes  to  build  up  the  muscular 
tissue.  There  is  a  limit,  however,  to  the  increase  of 
exertion,  and  when  this  has  been  reached  and  nitrogen 
equilibrium  has  taken  place  it  would  be  wisdom  to 
ascertain  the  quantity  consumed  in  the  food  and  adhere 
to  it  as  closely  as  possible.  The  evils  of  an  excessive 
amount  of  protein  are  pretty  well  known,  and  have  been 
painted  in  very  strong  colours  by  the  advocates  of  the 
low  protein  theory.  That  it  must  mean  a  useless  ex- 
penditure of  the  most  expensive  form  of  food  all  will 
admit.  No  adequate  proof,  however,  has  yet  been 
advanced  that  the  extra  work  thrown  on  the  organs  of 
excretion,  like  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  bowel,  actually 
induces  disease  in  them.  It  is  quite  possible,  nay 
probable,  that  this  happens,  but  it  does  not  amount  to 
a  certainty,  for  there  are  many  people  who  for  some 
reason  or  other  have  had  one  kidney  excised  and  in 
whom  the  other  kidney  discharges  the  double  function 
with  ease  and  comfort.  As  for  the  contention  that  the 
surplus  protein  is  in  the  colon  the  prey  of  proteolytic 
bacteria  and  thereby  produces  such  poisonous  products, 
as  indol,  skatol,  phenol,  leucin,  tyrosin,  muscarin,  etc., 
which  being  absorbed  promptly  induce  auto-intoxication 
with  such  symptoms  as  headache,  etc.,  we  can  only  point 
to  the  thousands  of  people  who  have  lived  on  the 
standard  hundred  or  more  grammes  of  protein,  and  who 
never   had  a   headache    in   their    lives.     Doubtless   the 


124      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

sedentary  worker  is  wise  to  reduce  his  protein  to  the 
lowest  possible  limit,  but  he  should  not  adhere  to  any 
arbitrary  basis,  but  depend  on  instinct  and  experience  as 
his  guides. 
Sources  of  Fat  is  stored  in  the  body  as  a  reserve  of  energy-pro - 
^^^  ^'  ducing  material  and  as  a  means  of  diminishing  the  loss 
of  heat.  It  is  formed  from  the  fat  and  carbohydrates, 
and  probably  also  from  the  protein.  At  first  sight  it 
might  appear  that,  whenever  there  is  an  excess  of 
nourishment  consumed,  the  surplus  should  be  laid  down 
as  fat,  much  in  the  same  way  that  a  banking  account 
grows  when  more  money  is  paid  in  than  is  drawn  out. 
But  the  problem  is  not  nearly  so  simple  as  that,  since 
we  all  know  people  who  never  appear  to  be  able  to 
become  plump,  no  matter  how  much  they  eat.  There 
are  also  cases  in  which  the  converse  is  true,  namely, 
fat  people  who  eat  apparently  less  than  their  size  or 
weight  would  warrant,  and  yet  who  continue  to  grow 
fatter. 

Fat  is  deposited  in  the  tissues,  under  the  skin,  on  the 
abdominal  walls,  between  the  muscular  fibres,  and  on 
many  of  the  internal  organs.  It  appears  last  on  the 
abdominal  walls,  and,  when  required  to  manufacture 
energy,  disappears  from  this  region  in  the  first  instance. 
Doubtless,  in  days  when  the  supply  of  food  was  pre- 
carious, it  was  advisable  to  have  a  reserve  of  energy- 
producing  material  in  the  shape  of  fat,  but  to-day 
it  is  only  an  incubus,  restricting  activity  and  im- 
peding both  the  external  and  internal  work  of  the 
body. 

Despite  what  has  been  said,  it  may  be  set  down  as  a 
general  rule  that  most  corpulent  people  eat  more,  both 
absolutely  and  relatively,  than  spare  people.  When, 
however,   they  are   so   excessively   corpulent   that   they 


WORK  125 

are  unable  to  take  exercise  or  even  to  breathe  freely, 
then,  doubtless,  a  quantity  of  nutriment  less  than  their 
normal  will  suffice  still  further  to  increase  their  stores 
of  fat.  It  is  in  these  circumstances  that  one  so  often 
hears  the  pathetic  statement  from  the  stout  person  that 
he  cannot  imagine  how  he  manages  to  exist  at  all,  as  he 
eats  so  very  little. 

Now,  a  banking  account  can  only  increase  by  one  of 
two  methods — by  adding  something  and  taking  nothing 
away,  or  by  taking  away  less  than  is  added.  Likewise 
a  person  can  only  grow  stout  by  one  of  two  methods — 
by  eating  a  little  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  or 
by  exercising  so  little  that  the  expenditure  of  energy  in 
the  form  of  work  is  much  less  than  the  income  in  the 
shape  of  food  and  drink.  Doubtless  both  methods  are 
in  operation  in  most  cases,  and  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  quite  40  per  cent,  of  obese  people  inherit  the 
tendency,  which  is  an  additional  reason  for  extreme 
caution  in  feeding.  If  the  fat  person  would  only  think 
bow  little  is  acquired  each  day  to  make  the  difference 
between  laying  on  flesh  and  standing  still  in  that  regard, 
he  would  hardly  wonder  at  his  daily  growing  proportions. 
Half  an  ounce  per  day  means  a  quarter  of  a  pound  per 
week — a  pound  per  month — a  stone  per  year.  It  is  no 
unusual  thing  under  proper  conditions  to  put  on  one 
pound  per  day  and  to  keep  this  up  for  quite  a  number 
of  weeks. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  trouble  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  afternoon  tea  with  its  half  pint  or  so 
of  hot  fatty  saccharine  solution  in  the  shape  of  tea, 
coffee,  or  cocoa,  and  its  sweet  cake  or  bread  and  butter 
and  preserves.  This  meal  is  always  superfluous  to  the 
person  who  partakes  of  three  meals  per  day,  and  at 
the  best  is  only  a  time  for  the  imbibition  of  fluid.     It 


126      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

is    altogether    too    seductive    to    the    man    inclined    to 
avoirdupois. 

The  factors  favouring  obesity  are : — 

(1)  Increased  income.  An  excess  of  food  in  the  form 
of  a  sufficiency  of  protein  with  an  abundance  of  fats 
and  carbohydrates.  The  best  example  of  this  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  butcher  who  freely  partakes  of  the  ample 
supply  of  highly  nitrogenous  food  which  is  always  at  his 
hand.  It  is  rare  to  find  a  thin  butcher  or  one  free  from 
gout. 

(2)  Diminished  expenditure,  or  inadequate  breaking 
down  of  the  materials  within  the  body  in  some  shape  or 
form : — 

(a)  Diminished  muscular  activity.     Hence  the  man 

who  sleeps  much  and  takes  too  little  exercise 

gets  fat. 
(h)  Diminished  mental  activity.     Hence  the  man  of 

phlegmatic  temperament  is  likely  to  become 

stout. 

(c)  Diminished    respiratory   acti^dty.       Hence    the 

fat  man  tends  to  become  more  fat,  because 
fat  on  the  abdomen  lessens  the  movement  of 
the  diaphragm  and  increases  the  adipose 
tissue. 

(d)  Diminished    number  of    red    blood  corpuscles. 

Hence  the  ansemic  person  tends  to  adi- 
posity, because  oxidation  is  less  than 
normal, 

(e)  The  consumption  of  alcohol  causes  the  accumu- 

lation of  fat  in  two  ways : — (1)  Because, 
being  easily  burnt  up,  it  saves  the  fat  in  the 
tissues.  (2)  Because  it  causes  fatty  de- 
generation by  paralysing  the  activity  of  the 
cells. 


WORK  127 

(/)  A  fat  man  should  use  much  less  heat-forming 
food    than   a   thin    man,  because  the  latter 
gives  off  more  heat  from  his  compact  body, 
and    an   accumulation    of    fat    prevents  the' 
conduction  of  heat. 
{g)  The  diminution  of  any  other  item  of  expendi- 
ture, emotional  or  otherwise. 
The  cure  of  obesity  is  not  such  a  simple  procedure  as  The  Cure 
might  appear  at  first  sight.     One  might  think  that  an  "^Corpul- 
entire  reversal  of  the  factors  inducing  obesity  would  be  ""• 
calculated  to  cure  it,  but  there  are  many  points  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  which  modify  the  treatment  of 
any  mdividual  case.      If  we  are  dealing  with  a  vigorous 
person    whose    organs    are    sound,    the    following  %ules 

should  be  adopted: 

(1)  Eeduce  the  total  quantity  of  daily  food.  What- 
ever else  be  done,  this  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  one 
has  a  choice  of  various  methods.  As  fat  may  be  formed 
rom  all  three  alimentary  principles,  it  may  be  sufficient 
to  reduce  each  one.  It  is  wise  to  estimate  what  the 
patients  weight  ought  to  be,  and  then  to  give  him  a 
t  le  less  than  his  due  allowance  of  protein,  at  the  same 

ahTv  '  w>?  ""  ^^'  ^"^'  '^^  carbohydrates  consider- 
ab  y.  _  With  a  view  to  stimulating  metabolism  and  thus 
inducing  the  more  rapid  combustion  of  the  deposit  of 
fat,  an  increased  amount  of  protein  (say  51  oz.)  may  be 
a  lowed  with  1  oz.  of  fat  and  3  oz.  of  clrboiydrates 
If  regular  exercise  be  taken  with  this  diet,  the  fat  is 
displaced  from  between  the  muscular  fibres,  and  increased 
muscu  ar  tissue  is  formed  on  account  of  the  extraXw' 
ance  of  protein. 

other  methods  in  vogue  increase  very  largely  the 
alowance  of  protein,  e.g.  the  Salisbury  diet  has  been 
advocated,    which    consists    of    3    lb.    of    rump    s  eak 


128      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

with  1  lb.  of  cod  fish  daily,  together  with  6  pints 
of  hot  water.  The  Banting  system  allows  1  lb.  of  lean 
meat  per  day  with  about  4  oz.  of  carbohydrates  and  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  fat.  These  three  methods 
may  be  very  useful  in  an  occasional  case,  but  they  are 
not  altogether  free  from  danger,  as  they  throw  such  an 
enormous  labour  on  the  kidneys  in  excreting  the  excessive 
nitrogenous  waste  which  is  formed.  Each  case  must  be 
treated  on  its  merits,  and  after  due  consideration  of  all 
the  facts. 

(2)  The  patient  should  be  weighed  weekly,  and  the 
reduction  should  be  slow  and  gradual. 

(3)  No  fluid  should  be  taken  at  meal  times,  as  lack 
of  fluid  reduces  the  absorptive  power  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  An  abundant  supply  of  fluid  may  be  partaken  of 
two  hours  a,fter  a  meal. 

(4)  Both  mind  and  body  should  be  exercised  freely, 
and  it  is  important  to  exercise  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body  as  far  as  possible  and  to  continue  the  exertion  until 
free  perspiration  takes  place. 

(5)  The  loss  of  heat  should  be  increased  by  cold  baths 
and  friction,  light  clothing  and  bed-clothing. 

(6)  Acid  fruits  and  gentle  laxatives  should  be  taken 
regularly. 

(7)  Hill  climbing  should  be  especially  practised. 
Where,  however,  we  are  dealing  with  a  patient  who  has 

a  weak  heart  and  indifferent  powers  of  exertion,  we  must 
adopt  a  different  policy,  and  this  should  be  in  all  cases 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  medical  attendant.  A  system 
which  is  much  practised  nowadays  is  to  put  the  patient 
on  an  exclusive  milk  diet,  the  quantity  of  milk  being 
severely  limited.  The  patient  must  be  entirely  confined 
to  bed,  and  as  little  as  two  or  three  pints  of  milk  may 
be  taken  daily  for  months  at  a  stretch 


WORK  129 

A  much  more  difficult  problem  is  that  of  inducing  The  Ex- 
thin  people  to  become  fatter.  Frequently  the  only  cessivdy 
method  of  value  is  to  put  them  to  bed  and  subject  them  ^^'''' 
to  a  system  of  forced  feeding,  as  much  as  4  lb.  of 
food  and  3  pints  of  hot  milk  being  consumed  each 
day  for  two  or  three  months.  If  an  indiarubber  bottle 
half  full  of  boiling  water  be  applied  to  the  gastric  region 
every  two  hours  night  and  day,  it  is  astonishing  how 
easily  this  abnormal  quantity  of  food  can  be  tolerated. 
This  system  is  especially  applicable  in  the  case  of  those 
highly  strung  people  who,  by  reason  of  a  hypersensitive 
or  irritable  nervous  system,  are  always  on  the  fidget  or 
constantly  performing  superfluous  movements.  Instead 
of  their  muscles  being  in  a  condition  of  relaxation  or 
moderate  "tone"  when  inactive,  they  are  tuned  up  to 
a  very  high  pitch,  and  are  therefore  always  consuming 
energy.  In  the  average  case,  however,  the  following 
rules  may  be  followed  with  advantage : — 

(1)  The  amount  of  food  should  be  increased  com- 
patibly with  the  powers  of  digestion,  especially  fatty 
food,  milk,  cream,  potatoes,  puddings,  butter,  honey,  and 
nuts. 

(2)  Fluid  should  be  taken  with  or  at  the  close  of  each 
meal. 

(3)  Exercise  should  be  taken  to  the  point  of  getting 
warm. 

(4)  Thin  people  should  never  worry  or  care  violently 
for  any  one. 

(5)  Warm  clothing  should  always  be  worn.  Plenty 
of  sleep  should  be  indulged  in  under  warm  bed-clothing. 
Warm  baths  should  be  taken  instead  of  cold,  and  hot 
milk  substituted  for  tea  and  coffee. 

(6)  Sweet  fruits,  figs,  dates,  raisins,  apples,  with  sugar 
and  cream,  should  be  eaten  instead  of  acid  fruits. 


I30      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

(7)  Thin  people  should  keep  to  the  level  and  avoid 
climbing  hills. 

The  effective  nature  of  this  exchange  of  material  be- 
tween the  blood  on  the  one  hand  and  the  bodily  tissues 
on  the  other  is  mainly  responsible  for  health.  Chronic 
ill-health,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  always  due  to 
ineffective  exchange  of  material  or  diminished  meta- 
bolism. If,  for  any  reason,  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
nutriment  cannot  be  taken  up  by  the  cells,  or  if  they 
are  unable  to  rid  themselves  of  their  waste  matter,  then 
the  result  will  be  diminished  vitality,  due  to  lack  of 
working  efficiency  of  the  tissues.  In  these  circumstances 
means  must  be  adopted  for  an  improved  working  capacity 
of  the  tissue  cells,  and  it  will  be  found  in  the  main  that 
this  may  be  effected  by  the  adoption  of  the  laws  of 
health  inculcated  in  this  book,  modified,  of  course,  to 
suit  individual  needs. 

Probably  the  factor  of  greatest  importance  in  this 
connection  is  an  increase  in  the  external  work  of  the 
body,  and  for  this  reason  exercise  in  the  fresh  air  is 
extolled  as  a  prime  remedy  against  the  incidence  of 
disease.  The  valuable  effects  of  exercise  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  a  separate  chapter.  For  our  present  purpose 
it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  the  result  of  muscular  work 
is  to  increase  very  greatly  the  output  of  energy  and  the 
caloric  value  of  the  food  ingested.  A  man  at  rest  in 
bed  will  only  expend  an  amount  of  energy  equal  in  food 
value  to  2000  calories,  whereas  severe  muscular  exercise 
may  demand  as  much  as  4000  calories.  We  have 
already  shown  that  it  is  possible  for  a  man  confined  to  bed 
to  subsist  on  about  3  pints  of  milk  for  a  limited  period, 
the  total  turnover  of  energy  here  being  no  more  than 
1200  calories.  If  he  is  allowed  to  walk  about  the  bed- 
room, at  least  1 0  per  cent,  more  energy  will  be  expended. 


WORK  131 

Hutchison  quotes  many  interesting  cases,  chiefly  from 
German  authorities.  Twelve  per  cent,  more  energy  is 
expended  when  standing  at  attention  than  when  standing 
at  ease.  An  hour's  saunter  consumes  137  calories — 
equal  to  ^  oz.  of  fat — while  an  hour's  quick  walk 
doubles  the  output.  A  walk  of  four  miles  increases  the 
expenditure  of  the  body  by  about  275  calories,  which 
could  be  covered  by  the  consumption  of  1  oz.  of  fat. 
Climbing  expends  twenty  times  more  energy  than 
walking  on  the  level,  i.e.  to  climb  a  mile  per  day  is 
equivalent  to  walking  twenty  miles.  To  walk  against 
a  strong  wind  for  a  mile  will  expend  an  amount  of 
energy  which  would  have  raised  the  pedestrian  8202 
feet  at  a  cost  of  1200  calories  (about  4^  oz.  of  fat). 

Increasing  the  external  work  of  the  body,  therefore, 
enormously  increases  the  internal  work,  stimulates  the 
income  of  nutriment  and  the  loss  of  waste  matters,  which, 
being  retained,  would  have  helped  to  poison  the  tissues 
and  lead  to  ill-health. 

We  have  already  seen  that  excess  of  adipose  tissue  is  The 
laid  down  in  those  who  eat  too  much  or  work  their  ^"^Jj^^  °^ 
muscles  too  little,  and  this  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  is  a  vote  of  censure  on  the  individual.  It  is 
possible  that  feeble  vitality  of  the  cells  may  explain  the 
greater  tendency  to  obesity  in  some  families  than  others, 
but  even  in  these  cases  increased  work  would  have 
increased  the  exchange  of  material  and  helped  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  fat.  Man  was  made  for 
activity,  as  the  study  of  metabolism  has  demonstrated, 
and  if  he  refuses  to  obey  Nature's  injunction  he  must 
pay  the  penalty  by  diminished  health  both  of  body  and 
mind. 

The  first  condition  of  good  health  is  a  life  made 
fruitful    by   toil    and    ennobled    by  good    actions.     For 


132      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

honest  employment  not  only  trains  the  body  and  mind, 
but  develops  the  character.  The  continual  use  of  a  part 
creates  a  greater  demand  for  good  blood  and  therefore 
nutriment  to  repair  the  waste,  and  this  constant  inter- 
change makes  for  physical  perfection.  But  we  shall 
see  later  on  that  the  same  laws  govern  the  nervous 
tissues,  and  hence  the  mental  and  the  moral  nature  are 
likewise  improved  by  the  habit  of  work.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  work  must  have  a  place  in  every 
scheme  for  the  amelioration  of  the  people.  Prosperity 
is  the  natural  reward  of  industrious  labour,  and  a  man's 
self-respect  is  thereby  immensely  enhanced. 

Laziness  is  at  the  root  of  most  failures.  One  hears 
much  nowadays  of  the  inviolable  right  of  man  to  work, 
but  the  cry  usually  emanates  from  those  who  do  not 
think  it  is  right  to  work  at  all.  Earnest  serious  diligence 
will  always  succeed,  despite  the  self-pitying  wailing  of 
the  indolent  man.  Work  must  be  looked  upon  as  a 
duty,  and,  if  this  be  the  case,  much  mischief  both  of 
body  and  mind  will  be  avoided.  The  increase  of  wealth 
in  the  present  day  has  made  it  possible  for  many  to  live 
without  actually  labouring  with  their  hands  or  engaging 
in  any  kind  of  work  at  all.  In  these  circumstances 
most  healthy  minded  men  seek  out  some  form  of  open- 
air  exercise,  failing  a  more  directly  productive  occupa- 
tion, and  play  or  work  at  it  as  a  pastime — literally  to  pass 
the  time. 

Degradation  always  follows  idleness.  The  moral 
character  of  the  inhabitants  of  most  hot  countries  is 
rarely  on  the  high  level  of  that  of  people  living  in 
temperate  climates.  Their  bodies  are  emasculated  and 
enervated,  and,  having  no  spur  to  progress,  their  moral 
nature  is  deficient.  Too  many  of  the  people  of  our  own 
country  engage  in  a  diligent  quest  after  pleasure,  and  are 


WORK  133 

always  on  the  search  for  some  new  excitement.  Too 
much  pleasure  is  infinitely  more  exhausting  than  work, 
and  never  succeeds  in  the  attainment  of  happiness,  which 
always  proceeds  from  within.  The  sooner  a  man  learns 
to  take  pleasure  in  his  daily  work  the  better,  and  he 
should  for  this  reason  endeavour  to  select  that  profes- 
sion or  business  in  which  he  takes  the  greatest  delight. 

We  have  seen  that  the  internal  work  of  the  body  per-  Age  and 
sists  throughout  life.     In  like  manner,  the  external  work  l^^"^^'""' 
should  be  continued  in  some  measure  as  long  as  life  and 
strength  permit.     Manifestly  a  man's  usual  occupation 
is  that  best  fitted  to  exercise  all  his  faculties  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  energy  and  the  greatest  amount  of 
pleasure.       Excepting    for     consideration    of     health,  it 
should   not  therefore  be  lightly  dropped.     The  idea  of 
making  a  fortune  or  a  competency  and  thereafter  retiring 
from  active  labour  is  almost  always  in  the  forefront  of 
a  young  man's  mind,  but  if  he  is  a  wise  man  he  will 
refrain  from  the  realisation  of  a  desire  formed  during  the 
period  of    mental    immaturity.     To   retire    from   active 
participation  in  the  work  of  life  so  long  as  any  working 
capacity  exists  is  usually  a  great  blunder.     It  is  pathetic 
to  see   the   aimless    wandering    about    and    the    mental 
vacuity  which    overtake    the   man   who    has   retired  in 
middle   life    without    some  adequate  substitute   for    his 
usual    occupation.       Nature    not    infrequently  revenges 
herself   on  such  a  departure  from   her  laws  by  a  pre- 
mature decay  of  all  the  faculties  and  the  supervention 
of  some  disease  which  often  terminates  fatally.     The  men 
who  "  die  in  harness  "  are  those  who  have  most  completely 
mastered  the  Art  of  Life. 

It  is  the  law  of  life  that,  if  a  man  will  not  work,  he 
should  not  eat.  We  have,  indeed,  seen  that  the  less  one 
works  the  less  desire  one  has  to  eat,  a  perfectly  natural 


134      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

sequence.  Labour  always  brings  its  own  reward,  for 
the  habit  of  industry  ennobles  the  character,  endows  one 
with  independence  of  mind,  is  a  solace  in  time  of  grief, 
and  if  it  does  not  ensure  happiness  is  one  of  the  indis- 
pensable requisites  for  that  state.  Carlyle  says,  "  Work 
is  the  grand  cure  of  all  maladies  and  miseries  that  beset 
mankind — honest  work  which  you  intend  getting  done." 
Who  can  forget  the  climax  of  his  "  Everlasting  Yea  "  ? 
"  Produce  !  Produce !  Were  it  but  the  pitif ullest  in- 
finitesimal fraction  of  a  product,  produce  it,  in  God's 
name.  Work  while  it  is  called  to-day,  for  the  night 
Cometh  wherein  no  man  can  work." 

Pkactical  Summaky. 

1.  Eegular  work  is  the  best  guarantee  against  disease. 
Work  is  not  a  necessary  evil,  but  necessary  both  for 
physical  and  mental  salvation. 

2.  As  long  as  life  lasts  every  cell  of  the  body  is  at 
work  to  ensure  its  own  life  and  produce  a  surplus  for 
the  community  of  cells  which  constitute  the  body.  This 
process  is  called  metabolism. 

3.  The  work  of  the  body  itself  is  therefore  of  two 
kinds — internal,  i.e.  that  work  whereby  it  is  enabled  to 
exist ;  and  external,  i.e.  that  work  whereby  it  justifies 
its  existence. 

4.  Compared  with  the  best  steam  engine,  the  human 
body  shows  to  much  greater  advantage. 

5.  Food  and  oxygen  constitute  the  fuel  of  the  human 
engine.  Foods  are  artificially  divided  into  "body- 
building" and  "energy-producing." 

6.  The  body  cannot  exist  on  pure  proteins.  Even 
carnivorous  animals  cannot  live  on  pure  protein,  and 
indeed  develop  greater  energy  on  a  fleshless  diet. 


WORK  ,3^ 

7.  The  body  cannot  live  on  fat  alone,  nor  on  carbo- 
hydrate alone,  nor  even  on  the  two  combined. 

8.  It  can,  however,  live  on  fat  and  protein,  or  carbo- 
hydrate and  protein. 

9.  Fat  is  stored  in  the  body  as  a  reserve  of  energy- 
producing  material.  It  is  not  so  necessary  to-day  as  in 
days  when  food  was  more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  clothino- 
was  less  universal.  ° 

10  Obesity  is  produced  by  the  deposit  of  an  excess 
of  fat,  and,  shortly  speaking,  can  only  occur  in  two  ways 
— by  eatmg  too  much  or  exercising  too  little. 

11.  To  reduce  obesity,  therefore,  the  "total  daily 
quantity  of  food  ought  to  be  diminished,  more  exercise 
taken,  and  fluids  ignored  at  meal-time. 

12  To  put  on  fat,  more  food,  especially  carbohydrate 
and  fat  should  be  taken,  as  httle  exercise  as  possible, 
and  fluids  should  be  taken  with  meals. 

.    ?"j-.T,^^  ^.?*  condition  of  good  health  is  a  life  made 
fruitful  by  toil  and  ennobled  by  good  actions. 

14.  Laziness  is  at  the  root  of  most  failures,  and  de- 
gradation follows  idleness. 


CHAPTER    V. 

REST. 

LAW  IV. — "Sleep  should  never  be  restricted  to  a 
definite  number  of  hours,  but  for  the  average 
man  eight  hours  or  more  should  be  the  rule.'' 

THEEE  is  no  such  thing  during  life  as  absolute  rest 
in  the  working  activities  of  the  body,  but  during 
our  waking  hours  most  of  the  organs  have  periods  of 
modified  rest,  and  this  rhythmic  action  may  be  said  to 
be  the  rule  of  life.  Even  such  apparently  ceaseless 
movements  as  those  of  the  heart  and  of  respiration  are 
not  conducted  without  definite  though  brief  pauses  of 
recuperation. 

During  the  hours  of  consciousness  the  nervous  system, 
which  is  the  controlling  mechanism  of  all  bodily 
functioning,  can  obviously  obtain  no  rest,  since  it  is 
continually  giving  forth  energy  to  every  part  of  the 
economy.  A  special  time,  therefore,  has  to  be  found  during 
which  it  can  attend  to  its  own  recuperation  and,  as  it 
were,  look  after  its  own  affairs.  This  it  does  during 
the  period  of  sleep,  when  all  the  vital  parts  of  the 
nervous  system  are  enabled  to  rehabilitate  themselves. 

That  we  may  intelligently  appreciate  the  nature  and 

office  of  sleep,  let  us  glance  briefly  at  the  structure  and 

functions  of  the  nervous  system.     It  is  divided  into  two 

136 


REST  137 

distinct  branches,  one  well  known — the  cerebro-spinal 
nervous  system,  and  the  other  less  well  known — the 
sympathetic  nervous  system. 

1.  The  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system  consists  of  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves. 

(a)  The  brain  is  snugly  ensconced  within  the  skull 
and  three  strong  investing  membranes,  and  rests  on  a 
springy  bed  of  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  It  weighs  about 
three  pounds  in  man,  and  a  few  ounces  less  in  woman. 
The  cerebrum  or  brain  proper  is  divided  into  two 
hemispheres  by  a  deep  groove,  and  intersected  by  many 
smaller  furrows  which  throw  its  surface  into  what  are 
called  the  convolutions.  The  hemispheres  are  composed 
externally  of  a  husk  of  grey  matter,  and  internally  of 
a  kernel  of  white  matter.  Behind  the  cerebrum  lies  the 
cerebellum  or  lesser  brain,  and  between  these  two  and 
the  spinal  cord  is  the  medulla  oblongata. 

(h)  The  spinal  cord  is  contained  in  the  spinal  canal 
formed  by  the  vertebral  column,  is  about  eighteen  inches 
long,  and,  like  the  medulla  oblongata,  is  composed  of 
white  substance  externally  and  grey  substance  internally. 

(c)  The  nerves  spring  in  twelve  pairs  from  the  brain 
and  thirty-one  pairs  from  the  spinal  cord. 

In  intimate  structure  the  brain  consists  of  cells  and 
fibres,  with  blood  vessels  for  their  nutrition  and 
lymphatic  vessels  for  their  drainage,  and  a  binding  or 
cementing  substance,  called  the  neuroglia,  to  keep  them 
altogether. 

The  cells,  which  are  much  the  most  important  con- 
stituents, and  of  which  the  "  grey  matter "  is  chiefly 
composed,  are  small  masses  of  finely  granular  substance 
called  protoplasm,  with  a  central  part  (the  nucleus),  and 
varied  in  their  shape,  stretching  in  every  case  into 
various  processes   or   dendrites.     Each  cell,  if   not  sur- 


138       THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

rounded  by  a  capillary  blood  vessel,  has  immediate 
access  to  one,  and  can  extract  from  it,  during  rest  and 
sleep,  the  active  principle  of  its  vitality,  called 
"  chromatic  granules."  After  a  hard  day's  thinking  or 
physical  exertion,  or  during  disease  and  exhaustion,  this, 
which  is  the  material  for  potential  work,  is  seen  to  be 
exhausted  and  to  exist  in  very  small  quantity,  but  it  is 
restored  during  sleep  by  the  ordinary  processes  of 
nutrition.  The  spreading  branches  of  the  cells  or 
"  dendrites "  are  connected,  some  with  neighbouring 
dendrites  and  cells,  and  always  with  one  large  one 
which  goes  to  the  spinal  cord,  and  through  this  com- 
municates with  the  nerves  and  so  with  every  cell  in 
the  body. 
The  "Grey  From  this  brief  description  of  the  structure  of  the 
of  tlir  brain  it  is  possible  to  see  an  analogy  between  it  and  a 
Braiu.  large  electric  battery.  Each  cell  of  the  battery  is  fitted 
with  chemicals  containing  a  definite  quantity  of  potential 
energy,  and  by  their  action  on  each  other  gradually 
emitting  a  corresponding  quantity  of  actual  or  kinetic 
energy  capable  of  passing  along  a  wire  to  do  some  work 
at  a  distance.  The  cells  of  the  brain  in  like  manner 
evolve  nerve  force,  using  up  chromatic  granules  by 
converting  their  potential  into  actual  energy,  and  this 
passes  out  through  the  spinal  cord  into  the  nerves  and 
every  cell  of  the  body. 

But  here  the  analogy  ceases,  for,  whereas  the  nerve 
cell  can  be  restored  to  its  potentiality  by  rest  and  sleep, 
the  chemicals  of  the  cell  must  be  renewed  by  artificial 
means.  The  brain  cells  are  joined  together  into  many 
groups  in  a  somewhat  intricate  fashion,  and  so  the 
"  association  of  ideas "  becomes  possible,  and  they  are 
capable  of  receiving  impressions  from  without  and 
storing  them  up  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time.     There 


REST  1 3g 

are  said  to  be  from  six  hundred  to  three  thousand  million 
of  them,  60  that  their  capacity  is  infinite. 

An  important  characteristic  of  the  grey  matter  of 
the  brain  is  that  it  has  five  or  six  times  more  capillary 
blood  vessels  than  are  allotted  to  the  white  matter, 
which  contains  no  cells  but  only  fibres.  This  shows' 
that  the  function  of  the  cells  is  vastly  the  more  im^ 
portant  of  the  two,  and  we  are  hence  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  are  the  generators  of  nerve  force,  and 
the  fibres  only  the  conductors  of  it. 

The  functions  of  the  brain  may  be  shortly  classified 
as  fourfold. 

(1)  J/oroi?.— The  process  of  generating  and  trans- 
mitting motor  impulses. 

(2)  Sensory. — The  power  of  perceiving  sensations 
both  general  and  special. 

(3)  J^UTRiTivi!:.—:Regu[atmg  the  blood  vessels  and 
so  controlling  the  amount  that  passes  to  each  organ  of 
the  body. 

(4)  IDEO-MOTOR.  —  The  power  of  forming  ideas, 
exercising  intelligence  and  volition.  This  is  its  chief 
function,  and  includes  everything  that  constitutes  mind, 
judgment,  attention,  volition,  imagination,  memory,  and 
so  forth. 

The  cerebrum  is  therefore  the  means  by  which  an 
hidividual  receives  impressions  from  the  outer  world, 
imparts  communications  to  certain  instruments  of  motion,' 
the  muscles,  and  governs  the  body  by  a  conscious! 
intelligent  will. 

The  cerebellum  regulates  or  co-ordinates  muscular 
movements. 

The  medulla  oblongata  conducts  the  impressions  both 
to  and  from  the  body  generally,  and  at  the  same 
time    contains    many    important    nerve    centres    of    an 


I40      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

independent  character,  ruling  the  heart,  circulation,  and 
respiration. 

The  spinal  cord  acts  as  a  conducting  medium,  and 
contains  many  subsidiary  centres  for  local  reflex 
activities. 

The  nerves  are  simply  conducting  agencies. 
The  sympathetic  nervous  system  consists  of  knots  or 
masses  of  nervous  tissue  called  ganglia,  arranged  partly 
in  two  rows  or  chains  on  either  side  of  the  vertebral 
column,  and  partly  in  other  regions  of  the  body.  The 
latter  include  large  and  well-defined  ganglia  such  as 
the  cardiac  and  other  organic  plexuses  and  the  greater 
solar  or  epigastric  plexus,  the  so-called  "abdominal 
brain."  From  these  emanate  nerves  called  the  vaso- 
motor nerves,  which  supply  all  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  body  and  enable  them  to  be  dilated  or  contracted 
according  to  the  necessities  or  vicissitudes  of  the  tissues 

hence  called  vaso-dilator  and  vaso-constrictor. 

The  sympathetic  nervous  system  acts  to  a  large  extent 
independently  of  the  brain  and  spmal  cord,  although  in 
intimate  association  with  them,  and  is  the  medium 
whereby  our  emotions  express  themselves;  for  these 
have  their  seat  not  in  our  heads  but  in  our  bodies,  as 
the  language  of  all  nations  bears  testimony.  It  presides 
over  and  influences  all  those  processes  in  the  body  which, 
fortunately  for  our  comfort  and  convenience,  are  carried 
on,  waking  and  sleeping,  independently  of  our  will,  and 
is  therefore  the  great  nutritive  agency  of  the  body.  It 
is  distributed  to  all  unstriped  muscular  fibre  of  the  body, 
whether  in  the  heart,  blood  vessels  or  viscera,  such  as  the 
stomach,  bowels,  etc. 

Its  messages  are  almost  entirely  of  an  unconscious 
character,  and  the  best  indication  of  a  healthy  body  is 
that    its   functions    should  be   carried  on  automatically 


REST  141 

and  without  the  knowledge  of  the  individual.  For  a 
man  to  be  conscious  of  the  working  of  his  heart,  or 
stomach,  or  lungs,  is  unhealthy,  and  augurs  ill  for  his 
happiness.  In  these  days  of  civilisation  or  citjfication 
such  cases  are  unhappily  too  common,  and  are  traceable 
to  the  cultivation  or  gratification  of  the  feelings  instead 
of  or  at  the  expense  of  the  intellect. 

During  sleep  the   nervous    system   is  in  a  quiescent  What 
condition,  its  function  being  curtailed,  and  those  which  ^^^H^^ 
persist  being  carried  on  in  a  modified  manner.      When  ^    ^^^' 
we  are  awake  our  intellects,  emotions,  and  volition  are 
in  a  state  of  activity,  and  molecular  changes  occur  in 
the  brain  of  a  kind  already  somewhat  indicated.      During 
sleep,  however,  this  molecular  activity  ceases,  the  mental 
operations  are  superseded,  and  consciousness  and  volition 
are  in  abeyance. 

All  parts  of  the  brain  are  not  always  active  during 
our  waking  hours,  as  one  part  may  only  be  functioning 
at  a  time,  whilst  others  are  in  repose ;  but  dur-ing  sound 
sleep  all  are  at  rest.  The  motor  and  sensory  centres  are 
likewise  tranquil,  whilst  their  nerves  transmit  impressions 
imperfectly.  The  centres  for  breathing  and  circulation 
in  the^  medulla  are,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  asleep,  and 
the  spinal  cord  is  also  much  less  active  and  its  reflexes 
can  only  be  aroused  by  very  strong  stimuli.  The 
condition  of  the  sympathetic  apparatus  is  unknown,  but 
the  emotions  at  least  are  inactive.  Thus  during  sleep 
all  parts  of  the  nervous  system  are  in  a  state  of  repose, 
and  the  bodily  activities  are  carried  on  with  the  smallest 
expenditure  of  energy. 

^  During  the  exercise  of  its  functions,  besides  the 
dissipation  of  the  chromatic  granules,  other  profound 
changes  take  place  in  the  nervous  system,  the  precise 
nature  of  which  has  not  been  clearly  determined.     It  is 


142      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

known,  however,  that  nerve  iSubstance,  which,  when  at 
rest,  is  neutral  or  feebly  alkaline,  becomes  acid  as  the 
result  of  activity,  and  one  is  quite  justified  in  concluding 
that  similar  changes  take  place  to  those  occurring  in  the 
muscles,  the  nett  result  being  a  diminution  in  the  size 
of  the  nerve  cell  and  an  accumulation  of  acid  waste 
products.  During  sleep,  therefore,  in  addition  to  the 
cessation  of  the  functioning  of  the  nervous  system,  these 
products  of  its  metabolism  are  excreted,  and  its  potential 
energy  is  restored. 
The  Col-         Sleep  does  not  occur  instantaneously,  but  the  various 

lapse  of  \     ^ 

Conscious-  parts  of  the  nervous  system  gradually  take  upon  them- 

ness.  selves  the  condition  of  repose.     Excitability  of  any  of 

these  is  apt  to  disturb  the  repose  of  the  whole  body,  and 

therefore  it  is  of  great  importance  to  make  a  proper  use 

of  each  part  of  the  body  daily,  so  that  insomnia  may  not 

arise. 

The  first  parts  to  come   under    the  influence  of  the 

somnolent  condition  are  the  centres  presiding  over  the 

muscular  system,  and  so  we  find  one  group  of  muscles 

after    another    gradually   relaxing    until    the    horizontal 

position  is  attained.     The  motor   centres  in  the  spinal 

cord  succumb  at  a  later  period,  and,  as  they  are  active 

when  those  in  the  brain  are  inactive,  and  hence  cannot 

exercise    their    inhibitory  influence    over    them,  various 

spasmodic  muscular  jerks  are  apt  to  take  place,  which 

most  of  us    have    experienced  at  one  time  or  another. 

Probably  this  is  also   the    explanation  of    the  frequent 

occurrence    of    epileptic    attacks    and    other    convulsive 

seizures  during  sleep. 

Thereafter,  the  various  mental  faculties  succumb  in  a 

regular  order — first  the  power  of  attention  and  judgment, 

and  then  the    memory,  and    so    for    a    short    time  the 

imagination  is  inclined  to  wander  away  in  revelries  of 


REST  143 

its  own,  till  all  intellectual  functioning  ceases,  or,  at  any 
rate,  the  conceptions  of  time  and  space  cease  to  control 
thought.  Then  the  centres  for  the  special  senses  become 
inactive  in  turn,  beginning  with  vision.  The  eyelids 
close,  the  eyeballs  turn  upwards  and  inwards,  as  if  to 
shut  out  all  light,  and  the  pupils  contract  in  proportion 
to  the  depth  of  slumber. 

The  power  of  hearing  comes  next  in  order  of  dis- 
appearance, and  it  need  hardly  be  observed  that  noises 
are  amongst  the  most  frequent  causes  of  insomnia,  com- 
pelling the  auditory  centres  to  remain  active.  It  is 
strange  how  a  loud,  unaccustomed  noise  may  fail  to 
waken  a  sleeper,  when  an  expected  one  will  rouse  him 
at  once  even  before  the  usual  time.  Witness  the  rapidity 
with  which  a  sleeping  dog  responds  to  his  name  casually 
mentioned  in  the  course  of  a  hitherto  neglected  con- 
versation. Monotonous  sounds  are  most  easily  forgotten 
unless  when  they  suddenly  cease,  as  during  a  railway 
journey.  But  many  monotonous  sounds  are  useful  to 
woo  sleep  by  a  hypnotic  process. 

The  centres  in  the  medulla  never  become  quite 
oblivious,  but  slow  down,  and  so  the  heart-beat  and 
respiration  continue  at  a  lesser  rate.  It  will  thus  be 
noted  that  the  order  in  which  these  mental  faculties 
are  eclipsed  by  sleep  is  the  reverse  order  to  that  of 
their  development  in  the  evolutionary  process ;  they 
follow  the  "  Law  of  Dissolution "  exemplified  by  the 
action  of  alcohol  and  most  other  poisons  on  the  brain. 
It  would  almost  seem  as  if  the  toxins  of  fatigue  have 
much  to  do  with  the  causation  of  sleep,  as  indeed  has 
been  frequently  suggested,  but  an  alternative  explana- 
tion is  that  the  blood  supply  of  the  centres  becomes 
lessened  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  heart. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  during  sleep,  at  any  rate 


144      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

in  the  recumbent  position,  the  heart  beats  from  ten  to 
twenty  times  less  frequently  each  minute,  or  quite  five 
thousand  times  less  during  a  night,  whilst  the  respiratory 
function  drops  from  sixteen  or  thereby  to  twelve  per 
minute,  and  is  much  more  shallow  than  during  the 
waking  hours. 

The  temperature  of  the  body  falls  from  a  half  to  two 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  three  times  less  heat  is  lost 
than  when  in  the  waking  state.  The  secretions  of  the 
mouth  and  most  mucous  membranes  are  greatly  lessened, 
and  the  movements  of  the  stomach  and  bowel  almost 
disappear.  The  secretion  of  urine  is  only  about  a 
quarter  of  the  quantity  passed  during  the  day,  and  it  is 
notable  that  much  more  phosphoric  acid  is  excreted 
during  the  night  period — an  indication  that  the  waste 
products  are  being  expelled  and  nutrition  taking  place 
in  the  nervous  system.  The  urines  of  sleep  are  said  to 
contain  convulsants,  those  of  the  waking  state  narcotics. 
First  The  depth  of  the  sleep  varies  according  to  the  circum- 

Souiidest.  stances  in  the  same  individual,  and  vastly  in  different 
individuals,  but  it  is  the  rule  in  healthy  people  that  the 
intensity  is  greatest  during  the  first  hour,  and  gradually 
diminishes.  Doubtless  this  is  the  explanation  of  the 
well-known  fact  that  "  forty  winks "  or  so  after  dinner 
and  after  a  period  of  stress  produces  quite  a  notable 
recuperation  of  the  powers,  and  it  is  probably  also  the 
reason  why  some  people  can  do  with  much  less  sleep 
than  others. 

We  have  seen  elsewhere  that  the  temperature,  and 
hence  the  vitality,  is  at  its  lowest  ebb  about  2  a.m., 
and  for  this  reason  two  hours'  sleep  before  12  o'clock 
are  distinctly  worth  four  thereafter,  as  it  is  the  best 
preparation  for  such  an  hour  to  have  had  as  long  as 
possible  in  which  to  recuperate  the  vital  functions. 


REST  145 

Much  argument  has  raged  and  still  rages  round  the 
scientific  explanation  of  sleep.  It  has  been  attributed 
to  many  causes,  but  the  theory  most  in  favour  is  that 
it  is  due  to  anemia  or  pallor  of  the  surface  of  the  brain. 
That  this  is  the  physiological  condition  present  in  the 
vast  majority  of  eases  is  an  assured  fact,  and  equally 
so  that  it  is  accompanied  by  a  flushing  of  the  skin,  which 
makes  room  for  the  displaced  blood.  Experimental 
evidence  exists  in  plenty  to  prove  that  at  the  moment 
of  sleep  the  skin  flushes  and  the  brain  becomes  pale, 
the  conditions  being  reversed  at  the  moment  of  wakino- 

For  long  it  was  doubted  whether  it  was  possible  to 
increase  or  diminish  the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  brain, 
but  this  has  now  been  established  beyond  the  possibility 
of  doubt.  Ifc  is  very  important  to  remember  this  fact, 
because  the  blood  supply  of  the  brain  is  arranged  on  a 
peculiar  principle,  whereby,  according  to  the  necessities 
of  the  various  areas  called  into  activity  by  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  the  tap  may  be  turned  on  with  the  necessary 
supply  for  any  isolated  point  or  for  many  at  the  same 
time,  much  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  possible  to  turn  on 
electric  lights  in  any  part  of  a  large  hall.  When  any 
part  of  the  brain  is  functionally  active,  an  increased 
supply  of  blood,  varying  from  30  per  cent,  to  50 
per  cent,  above  the  normal,  is  hurried  to  that  part,  and 
when  it  again  becomes  quiescent  the  blood  supply  de- 
creases. If,  therefore,  any  of  the  organs  of  the  body 
be  compelled  to  exercise  then-  functions  during  sleep,  as, 
e/j.,  when  a  hearty  meal  has  been  partaken  of  shortly 
before  retiring,  the  part  of  the  bram  which  is  responsible 
for  the  control  of  that  organ  becomes  unduly  flushed 
with  blood  and  interferes  with  the  soundness  of  the 
sleep.  Nor  are  the  organ  and  its  cerebral  coimections 
able  to  obtain  their  own  rest  and  so  rid  themselves  of 


146      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

their  waste  matters  and  renew  their  nerve  substance,  so 
that  chronic  irregularities  of  this  kind  lead  to  a  far- 
reaching  disturbance  of  the  body's  economy. 
Theories  of  Qn  account  of  the  fact  that  sleep  is  not  incompatible 
with  extreme  congestion  of  the  brain,  other  explanations 
have  been  offered,  such  as  the  suggestion  that  it  is  due 
to  the  lack  of  oxygen  in  the  air  of  the  apartment,  and 
it  is  known  that  everything  that  robs  the  air  of  oxygen 
is  conducive  to  sleep.  It  could  not  well  be  otherwise, 
as  the  oxygen  in  the  red  blood  corpuscles  is  the  active 
agent  in  the  combustion  of  the  tissues,  and  the  anaemia 
of  the  brain  is  only  another  way  of  cutting  off  the  supply 
by  limiting  the  quantity  of  blood. 

A  familiar  example  of  sleep  induced  by  lack  of  oxygen 
is  the  drowsiness  which  gradually  steals  over  one  in  a 
crowded  place  of  worship,  although  hypnotism  from  the 
steady  glare  at  the  preacher  for  a  lengthened  period  and 
the  monotonous  sound  of  his  voice  have  also  been  con- 
sidered in  some  degree  accountable. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  increase  of  the 
acid  waste  products  of  fatigue,  which  are,  of  course,  toxic 
and  allied  to  lactic  acid,  has  something  to  do  with  the 
production  of  sleep,  but  the  injection  of  lactic  acid  has 
failed  to  bring  on  sleep.  It  is,  however,  no  sufficient 
objection  to  this  theory  that  one  may  fall  asleep  in  a 
railway  train  on  a  hot  day,  even  although  not  fatigued, 
because  bad  ventilation  is  quite  capable  of  accounting 
for  this.  Idiots  and  others  whose  brains  are  inactive 
usually  sleep  much  better  and  longer  than  those  who 
work  their  brains  at  high  pressure  and  presumably 
manufacture  a  much  greater  quantity  of  fatigue  products. 
Still,  the  toxic  waste  matters  in  a  measure  paralyse  the 
brain  cells  and  are  no  doubt  a  contributory  factor  in  the 
causation  of  sleep. 


REST 


147 


Which  of  these  theories  is  the  correct  explanation  of 
the  cause  of  sleep  is  not  of  vital  importance,  and  it  is 
more  than  likely  that  each  of  them  has  some  part  to 
play  in  the  process.  It  was  needful  to  mention  them, 
however,  because  a  correct  appreciation  of  them  will 
enable  us  to  understand  why  it  is  that  so  many  methods 
have  been  suggested  for  wooing  unwilling  sleep,  and 
that  so  many  of  these  are  quite  valueless. 

Men,  as  a  rule,  require  less  sleep  than  women,  who  The  Sleep 
possess  much  more  highly  susceptible  and  sensitive  ^^l^^''^'^- 
nervous  systems,  and  whose  hearts  beat  on  an  average 
five  times  per  minute  more  tljau  a  man's.  Women, 
however,  bear  the  want  of  sleep  temporarily  better  than 
men,  and  are  capable  of  undergoing  long  spells  of  fatio-ue 
in  highly  monotonous  and  uncongenial  work  in  close 
rooms.  An  infant  should  sleep  practically  all  the  time 
not  required  for  feeding,  and  this  time  may  be  gradually 
diminished  until  at  about  ten  years  of  age  about  half 
the  day  is  devoted  to  rest.  Between  ten  and  twenty, 
from  nine  to  ten  hours  should  suffice.  From  twenty  to 
sixty  or  thereabouts  there  should  be  eight  hours,  and 
after  this  age  as  much  sleep  should  be  taken  as  can  be 
obtained.  Sleep  is  not  so  necessary  in  advanced  years 
as  in  young  people,  because  the  old  need  only  to  repair 
the  daily  waste  of  tissue,  whereas  the  young  require  in 
addition  much  energy  for  growth  and  development. 
Nevertheless,  good  sleepers  amongst  the  aged  are  those 
who  live  longest. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  no  absolute 
rule  for  the  duration  of  sleep,  but  that  in  all  cases  a 
sufficient  amount  should  be  taken  to  recruit  all  the 
energies,  so  that  on  waking  in  the  morning  a  stretch 
and  a  yawn  are  all  that  are  necessary  to  start  the  vital 
processes  mto  a  daytime  of  bounding  vigour.     But  the 


148      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

length  of  the  sleeping  time  is  not  the  only  criterion  of 
its  value,  because  individuals  differ  in  the  quality  of 
sleep  which  they  obtain.  It  is  quite  a  common  experi- 
ence to  find  that  a  short  sleep  is  of  greater  value  than 
a  prolonged  one,  and,  mirdbile  dictu,  that  all  the  feeling 
of  restfulness  acquired  by  a  few  hours'  rest  is  dissipated 
by  a  second  sleep  in  the  late  hours  of  the  morning. 
Probably  temperament  has  much  to  do  with  these  differ- 
ences, as  we  know  that  people  of  a  sanguine  temperament 
bear  the  loss  of  sleep  badly,  whereas  those  of  a  neurotic 
temperament  may  be  said  never  to  sleep  well  and  yet 
be  capable  of  enduring  a  great  amount  of  exhausting 
labour. 

We  occasionally  meet  those  who  have  the  power  of 
commanding  sleep  at  will — a  most  valuable  faculty 
which  may  be  cultivated  by  practice.  The  names  of 
Napoleon,  John  Wesley,  and  the  great  Duke  of 
Wellington  will  immediately  suggest  themselves  in  this 
connection.  This  is  the  class  of  men  who  sing  the 
praises  of  early  rising,  a  habit  which  suits  their  con- 
stitutions admirably,  but  has  gone  far  to  wreck  that  of 
many  a  growing  youth  who  attempted  to  emulate  their 
example.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  the  early 
rising  has  been  utilised  for  some  form  of  vigorous  exer- 
cise or  physical  culture  under  the  plea  of  developing  the 
body.  The  genus  physical-culturist  has  much  to  answer 
for  by  inculcating  such  an  idea  amongst  its  followers, 
and  many  of  the  breakdowns  so  frequently  witnessed 
amongst  those  under  the  spell  of  the  physical  culture 
craze  are  due  to  this  waste  of  renewed  tissue  at  a  time 
when  the  repair  of  tissue  had  not  been  completed. 

Those  engaged  in  literary  or  other  sedentary  occupa- 
tions of  an  intellectual  type  require  less  sleep  than  those 
engaged    in   work  demanding   the   use   of   the   muscles. 


REST  149 

Probably  this  is  because  they  have  acquired  the  habit  of 
sleeping  methodically,  just  as  they  do  everything  else,  in 
contrast  to  the  lack  of  method  displayed  by  the  average 
manual  labourer.  They  are,  however,  more  apt  to  develop 
insomnia  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  their  brain  cells, 
having  acquired  a  larger  supply  of  blood  during  their 
activity,  find  it  difficult  to  attain  to  that  condition  of 
anaemia  conducive  to  sleep.  Manual  labourers,  on  the 
other  hand,  find  that  their  occupation  tends  to  draft  the 
blood  to  their  muscles  and  away  from  their  brains,  and 
they  accumulate  a  sufficient  amount  of  waste  products  in 
their  tissues  to  foster  and  encourage  sleep. 

Whilst,  however,  a  certain  amount  of  muscular 
exertion  is  necessary  for  sound  sleep,  it  is  quite  other- 
wise where  fatigue  either  of  body  or  mind  exists,  and  we 
strike  here  a  fallacy  of  the  "  Nature  cure  "  theorists  who 
prescribe  hard  physical  culture  just  before  bedtime  to  the 
man  already  exhausted  by  his  day's  labour. 

Large  eaters  sleep  more  than  small  eaters,  because 
the  blood  is  drained  from  their  cranial  cavities  to  their 
digestive  organs. 

Sleep  is  not  so  sound  nor  so  prolonged  during  summer 
as  during  winter,  because  in  cold  weather  much  more 
energy  is  expended  in  keeping  the  body  warm,  and  so 
a  greater  amount  of  tissue  is  wasted.  For  the  same 
reason,  sleep  is  sounder  and  more  refreshing  in  cold 
and  bracing  climates  than  in  warm  and  relaxing 
climates.  Hence  the  value  of  a  bracing  hilly  district, 
as  compared  with  the  relaxing  sea-side  resort — although 
excessively  high  stations  are  not  satisfactory  sleep- 
producers. 

Bad  sleepers  may  be  divided  into  two  categories :  (1) 
Those  who  fall  asleep  at  once,  but  wake  after  a  few 
hours.      These    either    have    highly    sensitive   brains   or 


ISO      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

are  full  of  toxins  of  indigestion,  rheumatism,  or  gout. 
(2)  Those  who  cannot  go  to  sleep  on  retiring,  but  toss 
about  for  hours.  In  these  we  must  look  for  excess  in 
the  consumption  of  tea  or  coffee,  or  habits  of  overwork. 
The  statement  has  been  made  on  fairly  efficient  auth- 
ority, that  five  absolutely  sleepless  nights  are  sufficient 
to  cause  death,  and  that  two  completely  wakeful  nights 
have  been  followed  by  loss  of  memory,  hallucinations, 
and  unmistakable  evidence  of  mental  disorganisation 
with  great  physical  depression. 
The  Where  any  tendency  to  insomnia  exists,  one  may  be 

Insomnia,  sure  that  some  law  of  health  has  been  or  is  being 
broken,  and  steps  should  be  taken  at  once  to  discover 
the  default  and  remove  it.  That  this  is  not  an  easy 
matter  is  well  illustrated  by  the  evasive  yet  facetious 
reply  of  the  medical  man  who,  advising  his  patient  to 
eat  something  just  before  going  to  bed,  was  met  with 
the  reply,  "Why,  doctor,  you  once  told  me  never  to  eat 
anything  before  going  to  bed."  The  doctor  with 
dignity  replied,  "  Pooh !  pooh !  that  was  last  January. 
Science  has  made  enormous  strides  since  then."  The 
ceaseless  progress  of  physiological  research,  no  less  than 
the  extreme  variety  of  conditions  exemplified  in  the 
members  of  the  race,  must  always  restrain  the  over- 
confident diagnosis  of  individual  cases. 

The  place  of  repose  should  be  constructed  iu  accord- 
ance with  well-known  sanitary  laws,  and  the  ventilation 
should  be  especially  carefully  attended  to.  For  this 
purpose  the  open  bedroom  window  night  and  day  is  an 
absolute  necessity,  despite  which  fact  many  strong 
people  have  been  nurtured  in  an  atmosphere  chiefly 
characterised  by  its  lack  of  oxygen.  Indeed,  many 
people  find  out  for  themselves  that  the  only  way  to 
encourage  sleep  is  to  bury  their  heads  under  the  bed- 


REST  151 

clothes,  where,  fortunately  for  them,  they  are  unable  to 
remain  for  any  length  of  time. 

Quite  recently  in  one  of  the  medical  papers  the 
suggestion  was  made  that  sleep  should  be  induced  by 
taking  a  long  inspiration,  retaining  it  as  long  as  possible, 
and  then  repeating  the  process.  The  same  condition 
can  be  brought  about  by  taking  shallow  infrequent 
breaths  until  somnolence  appears.  In  spite,  however,  of 
the  fact  that  badly  aerated  blood  tends  to  encourage 
sleep,  it  is  unwise  to  have  the  bedchamber  full  of  foul 
air.  It  is  true  that  the  carbonic  acid  may  do  less 
harm  than  is  supposed,  and  that  the  diminution  of 
oxygen  tends  to  have  a  hypnotic  effect ;  yet  the  organic 
impurities  with  which  the  air  is  heavily  loaded  are 
the  favourite  haunting  places  of  the  tubercle  bacillus, 
which  thereby  may  get  its  chance  of  working  deadly 
harm 

Blue  blinds  to  exclude  the  light  are  often  necessary, 
and  any  form  of  light  is  harmi\il.  Curtains  either  at 
the  wmdow  or  round  the  bed  are  a  relic  of  the  dark 
ages,  and  drapings  to  hide  dusty  accumulations  of  years 
are  criminal. 

The  ideal  bedroom  should  face  the  south  and  open  on  The  Ideal 
to  a  wide  covered  verandah.  It  should  be  of  ample  ^^'^'■''°""- 
dimensions,  if  possible  eighteen  feet  long  by  sixteen  feet 
wide.  The  floor  should  be  varnished  or  parquetted,  with 
an  occasional  mat,  and  the  walls  covered  with  a  con- 
venient shade  of  sanitary  distemper.  No  angles  or 
corners  should  exist  in  the  room,  not  even  where  floor 
and  ceiling  meet  the  walls.  The  side  abutting  on  the 
verandah  should  be  framed  in  glass  and  removable.  In 
favoured  days  in  the  winter  this  glass  screen  may  be 
removed,  when  practically  an  open-air  chamber  would 
exist,  and  in  the  summer  the  bed  should  be  removed  to 


152      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  verandah.  Certainly  a  "  counsel  of  perfection " 
difficult  to  achieve,  and  made  more  difficult  by  the 
suggestion  that  a  dressing-room  and  a  bathroom  should 
be  attached  to  each  ideal  bedroom. 

The  bed  should  be  of  polished  wood  or  metal,  should 
not  be  situated  in  an  angle  of  the  room,  should  be  at 
least  half  a  foot  from  the  wall,  and  should  be  so  placed 
that  the  sleeper  is  not  subjected  to  draughts.  There  is 
no  special  reason  for  putting  its  head  north,  south,  east, 
or  west,  unless  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  sleeper. 

Every  person  should  occupy  a  separate  bed,  and  this 
maxim  applies  to  the  married  in  particular.  The  bed 
furnishing  should  consist  of  a  hair  mattress  on  a  wire, 
or  better  a  sofa  spring  mattress  covered  by  a  blanket 
and  an  absorbent  sheet.  Softer  mattresses  are  still 
favoured  by  a  few,  but  they  are  unhealthy  and  have 
been  proved  to  be  dangerous,  many  containing  more 
microbes  than  sewage,  as  has  been  proved  recently  by 
the  Chief  Sanitary  Inspector  of  Glasgow.  The  bed- 
clothes should  be  warm  but  light,  and  the  temperature 
of  the  room  about  5  8°  F. 

A  higher  temperature  in  the  room  causes  increased 
action  of  the  heart,  and  is  inimical  to  sound  sleep, 
whereas  too  low  a  temperature  depresses  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  skin  and  so  congests  the  heart.  If  the 
feet  be  cold,  then  a  hot  water  bottle  is  not  a  pandering 
to  the  weakness  of  the  flesh  but  an  actual  necessity, 
and  warm  bed  socks  should  always  be  worn  in  winter. 
When  noises  cannot  be  excluded,  the  ears  should  be 
stopped  with  cotton  wool.  Plants  should  never  be  kept 
in  a  bedroom. 

The  best  attitude  is  that  which  is  most  comfortable, 
but  if  it  can  be  varied,  that  is  advisable.  Many  lie 
first  on  their  left  side,  then  on  the  right,  and  finally  on 


REST  153 

their  back,  but  it  is  probably  best  to  slee]3  on  the  right 
side.  The  heart  lies  more  to  the  left,  and  is  apt  to 
inconvenience  the  sleeper.  When  lying  on  the  back, 
the  stomach  and  colon  are  likely,  with  their  weighty  con- 
tents, to  press  on  the  great  nerve  centres,  and  so  excite 
nightmares.  In  the  morning  it  is  wise  to  rest  on  the 
left  side,  so  as  to  encourage  the  matutinal  "  move  on " 
of  the  fseces  towards  the  sigmoid  flexure  and  rectum. 

The  last  meal  should  not  be  a  heavy  one,  but  if  it  is, 
it  should  be  eaten  not  less  than  four  hours  before  bed- 
time. Frequently  a  glass  of  hot  water  at  bedtime  is 
useful,  although  there  are  those  who  find  an  apple  an 
admirable  soporific. 

Where,  despite  attention  to  all  these  details,  sleep  Cures  foi 
refuses  to  visit  the  heavy  eyelids,  a  hop  pillow  is  often  ^^^'^P^^^^' 
found  to  be  a  valuable  expedient.  By  those  who  are 
accustomed  to  much  brain  work  a  fairly  high  pillow  will 
be  found  most  suitable,  whereas  the  manual  labourer 
will  find  he  can  sleep  quite  well  with  a  low  pillow. 
And  indeed  this  is  less  liable  to  produce  a  "  crick  in  the 
neck." 

A  smart  long  walk  just  before  bedtime  is  an  excellent 
hypnotic  for  some,  especially  if,  the  moment  home  is 
reached,  the  clothing  be  removed  and  bed  resorted  to. 
A  hot  foot  bath  may  be  more  satisfactory,  although,  if  it 
be  too  hot  and  unduly  prolonged,  wakefulness  may  be 
the  result.  Massage  may  favour  or  retard  the  tendency 
to  sleep,  but  an  abdominal  compress  is  nearly  always 
useful.  For  this  a  piece  of  swansdown  or  calico  three 
yards  long  and  eighteen  inches  wide  should  be  wrung 
out  of  tepid  water  for  a  third  of  its  length  and  applied 
to  the  abdomen,  whilst  the  other  two-thirds  are  wrapped 
round  and  pinned  firmly  over  it. 

All  sorts  of  devices  are  recommended  for  wearying  the 


154      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

brain,  such  as  counting  endless  numbers,  repeating  the 
same  word  continuously,  repeating  verses,  or  reading  an 
uninteresting  author  just  before  closing  the  eyes.  It  is 
always  wise  to  read  a  light  novel  or  engage  in  some 
social  dissipation  for  the  last  half-hour  at  least  before 
retiring.  Many  find  that  one  of  the  thin-paper  editions 
of  the  standard  authors  or  a  sixpenny  edition  of  a 
novel  need  only  be  read  for  three  or  four  minutes  to 
bring  on  the  wished-for  slumber.  Perfect  quietude  is 
not  indispensable,  because  the  loud  ticking  of  a  clock  or 
other  monotonous  noise  or  vibration  is  sometimes  of 
great  value.  Some  have  even  recommended  deep 
breathing,  but  this  is  hopelessly  at  variance  with  the 
physiological  accompaniments  of  the  onset  of  sleep. 

A  good  deal  of  the  layman's  advice  proffered  for  the 
treatment  of  insomnia  is  much  on  a  par  with  that  of 
the  Irishman  who,  on  hearing  of  his  friend's  affliction, 
declared  that  he  knew  the  only  cure  for  insomnia,  and 
that  was  just  to  go  to  sleep  and  forget  all  about  it. 

It  will  be  seen  that  most  of  the  suggestions — at  least 
the  useful  ones — are  simply  efforts  to  bring  about  one  or 
other  of  the  physical  conditions  that  are  known  to  pre- 
cede sleep,  and  it  seems  reasonable  that  a  process  which 
would  imitate  nature  in  all  her  details  would  be  likely 
to  be  followed  by  success. 

The  following  method,  which  I  have  personally 
practised  for  many  years,  has  been  attended  by  the  most 
favourable  results,  both  in  my  own  case  and  that  of 
others  to  whom  I  have  recommended  it.  Invalids 
generally,  and  those  who  are  afflicted  with  insomnia,  are 
often  exasperated  by  the  thoughtless  advice  that  they 
should  "  try  to  go  to  sleep,"  and  are  ever  ready  with  the 
rejoinder  that  the  more  they  try  the  less  do  they  attain 
the  end.     Nothing  could  be  more  in  accordance  with  the 


REST  155 

truth,  because  the  misfortune  is  that,  in  common  with 
all  well  meant  but  useless  advice — which  is  usually 
given  for  the  perfunctory  purposes  of  conversation — no 
instructions  are  given  as  to  how  the  effort  should  be 
made.  Hence  a  real  muscular  struggle  usually  ensues, 
accompanied  by  a  clenching  of  the  hands  and  jaws,  a 
tensing  of  the  throat  muscles,  a  strong  compression  of 
the  eyelids,  a  screwing  up  of  the  face,  a  shrugging  of  the 
shoulders,  a  drawing  up  of  the  knees,  and  an  attempt  to 
hold  on  to  the  bed  instead  of  giving  up  the  whole 
weight  to  it  and  placidly  disposing  of  one's  self  to 
oblivion. 

The  fact  is  either  unknown  or  forgotten  that  the  pre- 
liminary stage  of  somnolence  is  a  complete  relaxation 
of  all  the  muscles,  and  this  is  essential  before  sleep 
can  possibly  take  place.  Instead  of  the  motor  centres 
getting  a  chance  to  rest,  they  are  being  asked  to  work  at 
a  higher  pitch  in  an  endeavour  to  do  something  which  is 
not  clearly  understood.  At  the  same  time,  an  effort  is 
being  made  to  stop  thinking,  which  seems  to  be  the  great 
bugbear  of  the  sufferer  from  insomnia.  This  pre- 
supposes that  the  attention  is  being  directed  to  regulate 
the  process  in  the  forlorn  hope  of  bringing  about  a 
cessation  of  the  process  of  thought.  But  attention  is 
the  very  thing  which  stimulates  thought,  causing  one 
idea  to  chase  another  all  round  the  brain,  as  it  were, 
following  out  the  law  of  the  association  of  ideas. 

Now,  if  a  plan  could  be  devised  of  getting  the  motor 
centres  and  the  attention  to  go  to  sleep,  the  other  stages 
would  follow  as  a  matter  of  course.  This  is  what 
happens  in  the  method  I  am  about  to  suggest.  First 
lie  in  the  most  comfortable  position  possible,  and  this  is 
usually  on  the  right  side  with  the  knees  slightly  flexed. 
Then,  with  the  lips  closed  but  not  compressed,  drop  the 


156      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

lower  jaw  and  relax  the  tongue,  gently  shut  the  eyes  and 
draw  the  bedclothes  over  the  exposed  left  ear.  This 
shuts  out  light  and  sound  and  relaxes  some  muscles  which 
are  usually  forgotten.  Now  proceed  to  relax  more 
muscles,  beginning  at  the  feet,  legs,  thighs,  and  arms, 
imagining  each  in  turn  a  heavy  weight  bearing  down 
upon  the  bed  ;  and  lastly,  imagine  that  the  eyes  are  look- 
ing far  away  to  the  distant  horizon.  The  attention  is  so 
taken  up  with  the  relaxing  process,  that  thinking  soon 
ceases,  and  the  imagination,  instead  of  running  riot  at 
its  sweet  will,  is  set  to  play  on  something  definitely 
soothing  and  soon  falls  asleep.  This  desirable  result  is 
more  readily  brought  about  by  a  slowing  and  shallowing 
of  the  process  of  breathing. 
Subsidiary  Expertness  in  the  method  will  easily  be  acquired  by  a 
Methods,  i-^^^g  practice,  and  many  hundreds  of  doses  of  dangerous 
hypnotics  could  be  avoided  if  this  simple  imitation  of 
the  physiological  stages  of  natural  sleep  were  put  into 
operation.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  do  anything  more  to 
induce  sleep,  but  sometimes  it  is  wise  as  a  preliminary, 
in  order  to  distract  the  attention  from  business  or  other 
worries,  to  read  a  few  pages  of  some  light  novel.  In 
any  case  it  is  never  judicious  to  lie  abed  tossing  about, 
as  this  will  only  increase  the  misery  and  diminish  the 
chances  of  sleep.  It  is  much  better  to  get  up,  take  a 
little  walk  round  the  room,  eat  an  apple  or  other  form 
of  fruit,  or  drink  a  glass  of  hot  water. 

The  most  seductive  form  of  hypnotic  is  alcohol  in  the 
form  of  whisky,  because  it  tends  to  produce  an  initial 
sleep  of  short  duration.  But  in  addition  to  the  risk  of 
falling  a  victim  to  its  craving,  it  loses  its  effect  about 
three  or  four  hours  after  it  has  been  swallowed,  and  a 
more  severe  form  of  insomnia  is  thus  induced. 

It  is  sometimes  advisable,  in  cases  of  disease,  to  use  a 


Fati 


gue. 


REST  157 

soporific  drug,  but  this  should  never  be  done  without 
the  advice  of  the  doctor,  on  account  of  the  danger  of 
instituting  a  habit.  Besides,  drugs  for  this  purpose 
always  make  a  difference  in  the  morning,  and  often  fill 
the  mind  with  morbid  fancies  and  dangerous  obsessions. 
In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  cause  of  insomnia  is 
physical  and  due  to  an  uncontrolled  consciousness,  and 
the  true  treatment  is  to  inhibit  this  consciousness 
by  a  natural  process — not  to  numb  it  by  narcotic 
agencies. 

Having  dealt  with  sleep  at  some  length,  we  may  next  Rest  aud 
turn  our  attention  to  the  question  of  rest  and  fatigue. 
It  may  be  briefiy  stated  that  a  short  rest  of  at  least 
twenty  minutes'  duration  should  follow  each  meal,  and 
after  any  strenuous  effort  ten  minutes  at  full  length  on 
a  couch  will  be  found  an  efficient  reviver. 

The  problem  of  fatigue  is  by  no  means  a  simple  one, 
but  much  has  been  done  in  the  elucidation  of  its  causa- 
tion by  Mosso,  Professor  of  Physiology  at  Turin. 
Amongst  the  many  interesting  facts  brought  to  light  by 
him  and  others,  the  following  are  of  striking  interest. 
It  is  well  known  that  if  a  frog's  muscle  which  has  been 
completely  exhausted  by  the  stimulation  of  an  electric 
current  until  it  refuses  any  longer  to  respond,  be  washed 
out  by  injecting  into  its  substance  ordinary  salt  solution, 
the  electric  current  can  again  cause  it  to  contract  almost 
as  well  as  before.  If  again,  some  of  the  blood  from  an 
exhausted  animal  be  injected  into  one  which  is  quite  free 
from  tiredness,  the  latter  will  almost  immediately  exhibit 
all  the  well-known  symptoms  of  extreme  exhaustion. 
Evidently  some  chemical  substances  have  been  formed  by 
the  functional  activity  of  the  muscles,  which  are  inimical 
to  their  further  action. 

Careful  experiment  has  demonstrated  that  the  follow- 


158      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

ing  chemical  changes  take  place  in  a  muscle  which  has 
been  exercised: — (1)  Its  chemical  reaction  changes  from 
alkaline  to  acid ;  (2)  it  consumes  much  more  oxygen 
and  eliminates  much  more  carbonic  acid  ;  (3)  it  contains 
more  water ;  (4)  it  yields  a  larger  quantity  of  extractives 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  a  smaller  quantity  soluble  in 
water ;  (5)  it  yields  a  lessened  quantity  of  substances 
capable  of  producing  carbonic  acid  and  less  glycogen ;  (6) 
it  yields  less  fatty  acids — creatin  and  creatinin. 

Similar  changes  take  place  in  actively  functioning 
tissues  all  over  the  body,  ail  of  which,  like  muscles,  lose 
some  of  their  substance  by  working,  and  require  rest  in 
order  to  its  renovation  or  restitution.  This  tissue  waste 
is  of  course  expelled  into  the  blood,  and  is  acid  in 
character,  and  it  really  exercises  an  important  and 
beneficial  function  in  the  economy  by  restraining 
further  fatigue  of  an  excessive  character.  It  acts,  in 
fact,  as  a  sedative  upon  the  nerve  centres,  and  is  one  of 
the  direct  cases  of  rest  and  sleep. 

When  the  functions  of  the  body  organs,  however,  are 
unduly  exercised,  an  abnormal  quantity  of  waste  products 
is  excreted  into  the  blood,  where  they  act  as  toxins  to 
all  the  body  tissues.  Instead  of  sedatives,  they  now 
act  as  excitants  or  irritants,  and  this  explains  the 
nervousness  and  irritable  weakness  of  exhausted  states 
and  the  insomnia  of  overfatigue.  In  addition  to  this 
the  waste  substances  have  a  tendency  to  irritate  the 
kidneys  and  produce  organic  changes,  and,  being  in- 
sufficiently excreted,  are  deposited  in  the  tissues,  causing 
the  aches  and  pains  so  well  known  in  fatigue.  Now,  no 
two  men  are  constituted  alike,  and  they  vary  not  only 
in  their  food  and  habits  but  in  their  abihty  to  withstand 
the  effects  of  exhaustion.  An  amount  of  exercise  which 
in    one    would    be    followed  by  a    pleasurable  sense  of 


REST 


159 


tiredness,    would    in    another    be    followed    by    intense 
fatigue. 

In  this  connection  another  interesting  fact  is  of  great  Fatigue 
importance.     If  a   finger  be  attached  to   an  ergograph  ^.f"^" 
{e.g.  an  instrument  for  recording  the  number  of  times  the  Brain, 
muscles  contract),  and  made  to  move  until  from  fatigue 
it  is  quite  incapable  of  performing  another  movement, 
then  the  galvanic  current  applied  to  the  finger  will  still 
cause  it  to  contract  actively,  and  so  will  a  faradic  current 
applied  to  the  nerve. 

This  shows  that  the  fatigue  is  not  due  either  to  the 
muscles  or  to  the  nerves  controlling  them,  but  to  the 
brain  cells  which  preside  over  them.  In  other  words, 
fatigue  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  mind,  and  this 
fact  is  clearly  recognised  in  the  army,  where  music  is 
employed  for  the  distinct  purpose  of  stimulating  the 
flagging  steps  of  the  exhausted  soldiers.  Now,  where  a 
sufficiency  of  rest  is  indulged  in,  the  waste  products  of 
fatigue  are  removed  with  comparative  ease  and  the 
tissues  restored  to  their  normal  state,  but  where  an  un- 
due expenditure  of  energy  occurs  a  condition  is  established 
in  which  neither  physiological  rest  nor  food  will  restore 
the  body  to  the  equihbrium  observed  in  health,  and  a 
condition  known  as  nervous  debility  or  neurasthenia 
arises.  It  is  truly  a  condition  of  chronic  fatigue,  and  all 
its  well-known  symptoms  are  to  be  attributed  to  this 
cause. 

Although    neurasthenia    no    doubt  arises   in   a   large  Nervous 
measure  from  neglect  to  rest  when  the  necessity  arises.  Tempera- 
and  although  any  one  who  pursues  these  indiscretions  "^^°*" 
may  become  a  victim,  those  of  a  nervous  temperament 
are  much  more  prone  to  the  disorder  than  others. 

It  is  easy  to  pick  out  the  typically  nervous  man  by 
his  spare  habit  of  body,   large  prominent  veins,  quick 


II 


i6o      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

alert  movements,  often  abrupt  and  hasty,  even  jerky, 
although  at  times  he  may  appear  too  languid.  His 
leading  characteristic  is  a  want  of  balance  or  control  and 
his  great  danger  is  loss  of  self-control.  He  feels  pain 
acutely,  although  he  can  endure  great  fatigue  and  even 
privation  for  a  short  time  and  is  always  at  work  on 
some  problem  or  another.  It  has  been  well  said  that  he 
always  appears  to  be  able  to  do  more  than  he  is  doing 
or  to  be  doing  more  than  he  is  able.  He  lacks  repose 
and  restfulness  and  the  secret  of  his  tendency  to  nervous 
breakdown  is  his  constant,  more  or  less,  useless  expendi- 
ture of  energy. 

The  nervous  system  has  been  compared  to  an  ac- 
cumulator or  storage  battery  which  is  charged  during 
sleep.  Now  that  motor  cars  are  so  common,  most 
people  are  familiar  with  accumulators,  which  contain 
a  certain  store  of  electricity  for  the  purpose  of  creat- 
ing a  spark  to  fire  the  mixture  of  petrol  and  air  in 
the  cylinders.  When  this  falls  below  a  certain  amount 
it  is  unable  to  exercise  its  function,  and  requires  to  be 
returned  to  a  charging  station  for  a  fresh  supply  of 
electricity.  According  to  their  constitution,  some 
accumulators  can  retain  their  store  much  longer  than 
others  of  the  same  capacity,  throwing  it  off  less 
violently,  but  in  a  perfectly  effective  quantity  for  the 
required  purpose.  It  is  not  always  clear  why  this 
difference  should  exist,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  does 
exist,  as  any  motorist  knows.  Most  of  the  accumulators 
are  sent  out  with  about  four  and  three-quarter  volts, 
and  when  the  odd  three-quarters  of  a  volt  have  been 
expended  and  the  volt-meter  only  registers  four  volts  it  is 
time  to  send  it  to  be  recharged,  and  on  an  average  this 
occurs  once  a  month. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  average  man  should  never 


REST  i6i 

run  down  so  much  in  one  day  that  it  cannot  be  restored 
or  recharged,  as  it  were,  by  the  rest  and  sleep  of  the 
same  twenty-four  hours.  There  should  always  be  a 
sufficient  reserve  of  energy  to  meet  any  ordinary  or  even 
extraordinary  call  upon  it.  The  fatigue  products  which 
accumulate  throughout  the  day  should  be  excreted  with 
ease  during  the  short  periods  of  rest  allowed  in  the  day- 
time and  the  eight  hours  or  so  allotted  to  sleep  during 
the  night-time,  and  at  the  same  time  the  tissues  should 
be  restored  with  potential  energy.  This  should  be 
sufficient  in  amount  to  answer  all  the  calls  upon  it 
during  the  waking  hours,  and  in  most  cases  this  is 
what  happens ;  but  where  for  any  reason  a  smaller  store 
has  been  laid  in,  or  an  excessive  supply  is  allowed  to 
escape,  exhaustion  comes  on,  and  rest  and  food  are 
imperatively  demanded.  The  individual  must  always 
keep  his  expenditure  well  within  his  income. 

Now  there  are  multitudinous  ways  of  discharging  the  The  Waste 
energy,  and,  whatever  be  the  method  of  discharge,  the  °^  ^"^^§7 
result  is  the  same  in  that  it  reduces  the  store.  Those 
with  a  nervous  temperament  are  prone  to  discharge 
their  stores  with  great  rapidity  when  working,  and  even 
throw  it  away  uselessly  when  not  working.  I  have 
often  wondered  at  the  cause  of  this  waste,  and  speculated 
whether,  on  the  analogy  of  the  battery  wires,  the  nerves 
of  neurotics  may  not  have  been  thicker  in  proportion  to 
their  size  than  those  of  quiet  and  reposeful  people,  thus 
providing  a  wider  avenue  for  escape.  In  any  case 
physical,  intellectual,  spiritual,  and  emotional  expendi- 
ture of  energy  all  bring  about  the  same  result  in  the 
long  run,  namely,  a  depletion  of  the  stores. 

It  is  nonsense  to  say,  as  the  fanatical  physical  culturist 
does,  that  a  change  of  occupation  is  beneficial  to  a 
fatigued  man.     It  may   be  a  relief  to  the  monotony  of 


i62      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

work  in  an  untired  man,  but  any  form  of  work  exhausts 
the  available  stores  of  potential  energy  and  tends  towards 
fatigue,  and  if  the  major  portion  of  the  store  be  expended 
in  physical  energy,  then  all  the  less  remains  to  be  ex- 
pended in  other  ways.  It  is  quite  easy  to  understand 
why  so  many  disciples  of  physical  culture  are  apt  to  break 
down.  They  have  been  advised  by  blind  leaders  of  the 
blind  to  take  exercise  for  the  relief  of  their  tired  feeling, 
when  rest  should  have  been  counselled — running  counter 
to  the  law  of  exhaustion  as  expounded  by  Mosso,  that 
"  work  done  by  a  muscle  already  fatigued  acts  on  that 
muscle  in  a  more  harmful  manner  than  a  heavier  task 
performed  under  normal  conditions."  And  on  the  same 
principle,  any  antitoxin  for  fatigue  is  likely  to  prove 
disappointing  if  not  dangerous,  because  even  although  it 
permitted  more  work  to  be  done  it  would  only  be  at  the 
expense  of  the  vital  tissues. 

But  not  only  is  it  wise  to  indulge  in  stated  periods  of 
rest,  it  is  quite  as  essential  to  cultivate  the  spirit  of  re- 
pose, and  this  applies  especially  to  those  of  a  nervous 
temperament.  Whether  from  an  hereditarily  unstable 
nervous  system,  or  a  wrong  method  of  education  or 
an  unsuitable  occupation,  they  are  characterised  from 
their  cradle  to  the  grave  by  the  performance  of  purpose- 
less actions. 

One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  wasted  energy  is  an 
excessive  expenditure  in  needlessly  loud  talking,  even 
when  they  practise  economy  in  their  speech,  which  is  rare. 
Nothing  exhausts  more  than  constant  talking,  imless  it 
be  the  habit  of  talking  in  moving  vehicles,  such  as  railway 
trains,  motor  cars,  and  trams.  But  this  is  only  one  method, 
for  as  children  we  find  such  subjects  blinking,  twitching 
their  eyelids,  making  hideous  grimaces,  going  about  with 
open    mouths,  constantly  stretching    their  necks,  biting 


REST  163 

their  nails  or  changing  posture  by  shuffling  with  their 
feet.  As  they  grow  older  they  are  found  twiddling  their 
fingers,  and  holding  themselves  tensely  on  a  chair  or 
other  seat,  instead  of  yielding  to  it  entirely.  They  shrug 
their  eyebrows  and  clench  their  jaws  vfhen  thinking,  and 
employ  half  the  muscles  of  their  body  in  every  single 
action,  instead  of  using  only  one  or  two  specific  muscles. 
This  is  ignoring  such  unconscious  escape  of  energy  as 
takes  place  from  an  uncorrected  error  or  refraction  in 
their  eyes,  or  the  necessary  subjection  of  their  organs  of 
hearing  to  loud  noises  of  city  traffic,  both  of  which  we 
will  consider  later  on. 

Let  us  take  another  and  more  easily  understood  example  The  Fca- 
of  a  store  of  energy,  and  liken  it  to  a  reservoir  of  water  ^^""^^  °^ 
which  should  dehver  its  supply  through  a  regulation  pipe  thenk!" 
when  called  upon  by  the  opening  of  a  tap.     When  one 
or  more  leakages  exist  in  the  water  tank,  causing  a  con- 
stant escape,  the  rapid  depletion  of  the  reserve  stores  can 
then  be  appreciated.     It  is  quite  possible  that  in  this 
illegitimate  manner  all  the  supply  may  become  exhausted, 
so  that  none  is  forthcoming  by  the  usual  method  of  with- 
drawal.    Probably    this    is    why    the    man    of    nervous 
temperament  is  so  prone  to  become  the  victim  of  nervous 
exhaustion. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  a  storage  battery  quite  a  large 
supply  of  energy  remains  unexpended,  even  although  It 
is  quite  inadequate  for  its  intended  purpose,  and^that 
there  is  a  comparatively  small  working  margin.  Doubt- 
less this  gives  the  clue  to  many  cases  of  neurasthenia, 
which  have  been  brought  about  by  one  single  great 
physical  or  mental  strain.  Instead  of  stopping  when 
their  working  margin  was  used  up,  the  victims  compelled 
themselves  to  work,  and  so  exhausted  their  bodily  tissues 
that  they  were  never  again  able  to  be  restored  effectually. 


1 64      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  remember  that  a 
very  great  deal  of  the  fatigue  of  neurasthenia  is  of  mental 
origin,  and  is  really  in  the  way  of  an  auto-suggestion — a 
severe  taking-pity  on  one's  self — even  although  there  is 
always  a  real  nucleus  of  fatigue  in  one  organ  or  another. 
Thus  the  real  nucleus  may  be  gastric,  cardiac,  cerebral,  or 
spinal,  or  indeed  in  any  organ  of  the  body,  and  in  the 
ordinary  individual  would  be  a  mere  passing  phase,  dis- 
appearing with  a  little  mild  treatment  or  rest.  But  in 
the  victim  of  neurasthenia  it  brings  about  a  real  mental 
fatigue,  which  is  of  a  much  more  serious  character  than 
the  focus  in  the  periphery. 

The  symptoms  of  neurasthenia  are  thus  multifarious 
and  very  variable  in  their  character,  but  always  charac- 
terised by  easy  excitability  to  a  slight  stimulus,  so  that 
the  term  "  irritable  weakness  "  has  been  used  to  explain 
it.  The  power  of  volition  having  been  weakened,  the 
inhibitory  force  resident  in  the  brain  is  at  a  discount, 
and  the  emotional  or  sympathetic  nervous  system  gets 
its  chance,  causing  the  bodily  functions  to  run  riot,  and 
bringing  about  disturbances  in  every  part  of  the  body. 
Hence  pains  and  tender  spots  are  always  to  be  found 
present  somewhere,  and  this  leads  to  a  habit  of  intro- 
spection which  is  much  more  serious  than  any  local  dis- 
order. 

The  cure  of  the  condition  consists  in  retracing  the 
steps  along  the  paths  of  physiological  rectitude,  and  a  rigid 
attention  to  all  the  laws  of  health  in  the  future.  There 
is  therefore  no  real  cure  in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of 
the  term,  but  a  bringing  about  of  the  status  quo  ante  by 
an  avoidance  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  debacle. 
But  although  the  tendency  to  relapse  always  remains, 
the  victim  may  become  a  very  much  better  man  than  he 
was  originally,  by  learning  to  save  his  energy,  especially 


REST  165 

that  energy  which  was  formerly  expended  in  the  purpose- 
less movements  I  have  mentioned,  or  in  the  emotional 
outbursts  so  common.  For  this  purpose  a  series  of  re- 
laxing movements  is  now  suggested  as  tending  towards 
a  proper  realisation  of  this  ideal  condition,  but  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  their  practice  is  hable  to  bring  about  a 
greater  degree  of  self-consciousness  than  is  compatible 
with  perfect  self-control.  In  any  case,  they  are  unneces- 
sary in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  if  the  foregoing  instruc- 
tions be  observed. 

It  is  quite  otherwise,  however,  with  any  defect  in  the  The  For- 
eyes  or  the  ears,  and  we  must  therefore  consider  the  ^^  ^-^^^ 
principle  of  rest  as  applied  to  these  organs. 

We  will  in  Chapter  VIII.  briefly  refer  to  the  eye  in 
connection  with  the  question  of  cleanliness,  but  in  order 
to  the  proper  understanding  of  the  effects  of  ocular  strain 
upon  the  health,  we  must  consider  shortly  the  structure 
of  the  eye. 

The  eyeball  consists  of  a  large  sphere,  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  which  is  placed  the  segment  of  a  smaller 
sphere,  and  its  average  diameter  is  about  an  inch.  It  is 
deeply  placed  in  the  orbit,  which  is  surmounted  by  the 
eyebrows  to  give  some  degree  of  shade,  and  protect  in 
some  measure  from  dust  and  perspiration.  The  eyelids 
fulfil  the  same  function,  distributing  tears  over  the  surface 
of  the  eyeball  from  the  tear  gland,  and  by  incessant 
winking  keep  the  front  of  the  eye  free  from  dust. 
The  eyelashes  which  project  from  the  lids  are  likewise 
protective  in  character,  and  when  much  inflamed  and 
distorted,  not  only  constitute  an  unsightly  facial  blemish, 
but  often  indicate  the  existence  of  an  uncorrected  error 
of  refraction.  In  the  same  way,  persistent  watering  of 
the  eyes  is  liable  to  arise  from  a  similar  cause. 

The  clear  portion,  like  a  window  in  front  of  the  eye, 


1 66      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

is  called  the  cornea,  and  the  white  of  the  eye  the 
sclerotic.  The  whole  is  lined  by  a  very  fine  membrane, 
the  conjunctiva,  which  is  excessively  fine  and  transparent 
over  the  cornea,  but  highly  vascular  over  the  sclerotic. 
Therefore,  when  much  congested  from  irritation  or  injury, 
it  quickly  becomes  reddened  and  may,  as  in  influenza, 
look  quite  pink.  It  is  continuous  with  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  nose  and  mouth,  and  hence  many  of  its 
inflammations,  which  spread  from  the  former,  cannot  be 
cured  by  applications  to  the  eye  alone,  but  require  a 
cleansing  douche  to  the  nose.     (See  Chapter  VIII.) 

If  a  pin  were  made  to  pierce  the  eyeball,  right  in  the 
centre  from  the  front,  it  would  pass  through  in  order  the 
following  structures:  (1)  The  cornea,  lined,  as  seen  in 
front,  with  a  fine  continuation  of  the  conjunctiva,  and 
behind  with  an  equally  fine  layer  of  endothelium.  (2) 
The  aqueous  chamber,  a  free  cavity  containing  a  little 
watery  alkaline  fluid.  (3)  The  pupil,  the  small  black  dot 
of  varying  size  surrounded  by  the  iris — the  part  which 
gives  the  colour  to  the  eye,  and  is  the  cause  of  the 
changing  dimensions  of  the  pupil.  (4)  The  crystalline 
lens — a  biconvex  transparent  body.  (5)  The  vitreous 
humour  —  a  jelly-like  substance  occupying  much  the 
largest  part  of  the  body  of  the  eyeball.  (6)  The  retina, 
spread  over  all  the  vitreous  humour.  (7)  The  choroid 
membrane.  (8)  The  sclerotic.  The  cornea  and  sclerotic 
are  continuous  with  each  other,  and  together  form  the 
outside  coat  of  the  eyeball.  The  former  is  transparent, 
for  transmitting  rays  of  light ;  the  latter  four-fifths  of 
the  whole  is  tough  and  resistant,  for  protecting  the 
delicate  contents. 

The  chief  fimction  of  the  iris  is,  by  contracting  and 
dilating,  to  regulate  the  amount  of  light  admitted  to  the 
eye.     At  its  outer  border  it  is  continuous  with  the  ciliary 


REST  167 

body  and  the  ciliary  muscle,  whose  function  is  to  make 
the  lens  more  convex  and  so  enable  the  eye  to  accommodate 
itself  to  distant  vision.  Hence  this  function  is  called 
"  accommodation."  The  choroid  invests  the  posterior  five- 
sixths  of  the  globe  between  the  retina  and  sclerotic,  and 
is  meant  to  supply  blood  to  the  interior  of  the  eye  and 
absorb  superfluous  light.  The  retina  is  the  innermost  of 
the  three  coats  of  the  eyeball,  and  is  really  the  surface 
upon  which  the  visual  image  is  formed  and  transmitted 
to  the  brain  through  the  optic  nerve. 

A  very  common  and  annoying  defect  of  the  vitreous 
humour  is  the  existence  of  microscopic  opacities  which 
are  only  visible  to  the  patient  in  the  form  of  "  muscaj 
volitantes,"  or  specks  before  the  eye.  Their  existence  is 
practically  imiversal,  and  any  one  who  cares  to  look  up  to 
the  sky  on  a  clear  day,  or  on  to  a  flat  surface  like  a 
white  wall,  will  be  certain  to  observe  them  in  the  form 
of  strings  of  beads,  rings,  flakes,  etc.,  floating  up  and 
down  with  the  movements  of  the  eyes.  They  are  in- 
tensified when  an  error  of  refraction  exists,  and  are  said 
to  be  more  plainly  visible  during  the  condition  known  as 
"biliousness,"  but  are  apt  to  become  less  in  evidence 
when  perfectly  fitting  spectacles  are  worn,  or  during  a 
holiday  or  other  comparative  form  of  rest  for  the  eye. 

The  eyeball  itself  does  not  really  see.  It  only  acts  Errors  of 
like  a  camera  and  transmits  an  impression  by  means  of  ^^frac- 
the  retina,  and  through  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain, 
where  the  act  of  vision  is  consummated.  Eays  of  light 
pass  through  the  pupil,  and  the  iris  acts  like  a  diaphragm, 
cutting  oft'  those  which  are  too  divergent  to  be  properly 
refracted,  while  the  others  are  focused  by  the  crystalline 
lens  and  other  refractive  media  on  the  sensitive  plate 
of  the  retina.  It  is  quite  the  exception  for  this  to  take 
place  accurately,  the  image  being  sometimes    found    in 


i68      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

front  of  the  retina,  as  in  myopia  or  short-sightedness,  and 
sometimes  behind  the  retina,  as  in  hyperopia  or  hyper- 
metropia,  or  long-sightedness. 

These  conditions  are  usually  fairly  simple,  but  it  is 
very  different  with  the  most  common  error  of  refraction, 
now  so  well  known  as  astigmatism.  It  receives  this 
name  because  the  rays  of  light  in  the  different  meridia 
fail  to  be  focused  in  the  same  plane,  and  hence  an  ir- 
regular image  is  formed.  It  is  found  in  all  degrees  of 
complexity,  and  exists  in  most  civilised  eyes  to  some 
extent,  producing  little  or  no  discomfort  in  early  life,  so 
long  as  the  eyes  are  only  used  for  distant  vision,  but 
capable  of  bringing  about  the  most  diverse  consequences 
in  the  human  economy  when  the  eyes  are  much  used  for 
reading  or  close  work,  even  to  the  extent  of  nervous 
debility  of  lifelong  duration. 

It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the  malign  influence 
which  it  exerts  on  the  general  health  has  been  estimated 
at  its  true  value,  but  so  potent  is  its  effect  on  the  comfort 
of  the  individual  that  probably  much  of  the  pessimistic 
literature  of  past  ages  owes  its  origin  to  this  defect.  In 
any  case,  it  is  now  recognised  that  among  its  victims 
were  Carlyle  with  his  life-long  dyspepsia  and  lugubrious 
outlook  on  life ;  Huxley,  with  his  giddiness  and  sickness, 
necessitating  constant  recourse  to  Ilkley  and  Switzerland  ; 
De  Quincey,  whose  agonies  were  so  great  that  8000 
drops  of  laudanum  were  ultimately  required  to  quench 
them ;  Darwin,  for  whom  it  meant  a  life  of  ill-health  and 
consequent  ostracism  from  society;  George  Eliot,  Coleridge, 
and  doubtless  hosts  of  others.  It  may  seem  strange  that 
the  history  of  these  eminent  literati  contains  little  or  no 
reference  to  the  eyes,  but  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
when  we  know  that  such  a  defect  in  the  eye  is  capable 
of  producing  such  manifold  disorders  as  violent  headaches. 


REST  169 

usually  01  the  migrainous  type,  obstinate  dyspepsia, 
constipation  and  liver  disorders,  giddiness,  and  general 
nervousness,  insomnia,  nervous  debility,  chorea,  epilepsy, 
and  the  severest  prostration  of  the  general  health. 

The  method  by  which  these  varied  phenomena  manifest 
themselves  in  remote  portions  of  the  system  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  appreciate,  when  we  realise  the  close  connection 
of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  with  the  eye.  The 
ciliary  and  the  ophthalmic  ganglia  are  constantly  irritated 
by  the  efforts  of  the  ciliary  muscle  to  bring  about  perfect 
vision — a  result  it  often  succeeds  in  effecting,  but  at  the 
ever-present  risk  of  intense  loss  of  nervous  vitality,  com- 
municated first  to  the  ganglia  in  the  neck,  and  thence  to 
the  various  organs  supplied  by  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system  in  the  abdomen  and  elsewhere. 

Short-sight  is  easily  appreciated  and  detected  by  the 
man  in  the  street,  but  long-sight  and  astigmatism,  either 
singly  or  combined,  are  so  frequently  compensated  for  in 
the  manner  just  mentioned  that  the  unfortunate  sufferers 
repudiate  the  slightest  suggestion  of  ocular  incapacity. 
It  is  fortunate  when  the  effects  of  eye-strain  are  brought 
home  by  a  sense  of  discomfort  in  the  eyes,  a  blurring  of 
the  type  when  reading,  or  a  difficulty  in  following  the 
lines,  a  twitching,  itching,  burning,  smarting,  or  congestion 
of  the  eyelids.  But  these  are  less  frequently  observed 
than  the  general  or  reflex  symptoms  already  mentioned, 
for  which  in  most  instances  many  useless  bottles  of 
medicine  have  been  swallowed  before  correction  of  the 
defective  refraction  is  attempted. 

The  remedial  treatment  of  eye-strain  consists  in  the  The  Cure 
provision  of  glasses,  whose  refracting  power  will  suffice  strfin^' 
easily  to  focus  the  rays  of  light  on  the  retina. 

As  a  hypermetropic  eye  is  rather  shorter  than  the 
normal,  and  the  focus  of  the  entering  rays  of   light  is 


170      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

behind  the  retina,  a  convex  lens  will  be  required  to  bring 
them  forward  ;  and,  as  a  myopic  eye  is  rather  longer  than 
the  normal,  and  the  rays  of  light  are  focused  in  front  of 
the  retina,  a  concave  lens  to  diverge  the  rays  sufficiently 
will  be  necessary. 

The  problem  in  astigmatism  is  much  more  complicated, 
because,  although  it  exists  from  birth  in  some  degree,  it  is 
usually  much  exaggerated  before  advice  is  sought,  and 
may  be  daily  growing  worse.  The  continuous  pressure 
of  the  tense  ocular  muscles,  and  the  attendant  weakening 
of  the  tissues  from  congestion,  cause  the  coats  of  the 
eyeball  to  be  pressed  out  of  shape  in  various  meridia. 
Hence  cylindrical  glasses  must  be  so  combined  at  varying 
angles  to  equalise  the  defects  produced,  and  bring  the 
rays  of  light  to  a  proper  focus.  When  the  accommoda- 
tion only  is  weak,  as  occurs  in  everybody  after  the  age  of 
forty-five,  convex  glasses  are  used  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiency,  and  these  require  to  be  strengthened  every  five 
years  or  so.  When  there  is  a  tendency  to  squint,  because 
of  weak  external  ocular  muscles  or  other  cause,  prismatic 
glasses  may  be  useful. 

In  every  case,  without  exception,  however,  it  is  judici- 
ous if  not  absolutely  essential  to  consult  not  an  optician, 
but  a  medical  man  who  has  made  a  speciality  of  ophthalmic 
work.  It  is  a  quaint  popular  fallacy  which  ascribes  to 
the  toolmaker  the  necessary  skill  for  using  the  tool :  one 
might  almost  as  well  call  a  cutler  to  amputate  a  limb 
instead  of  calling  in  a  surgeon,  as  expect  an  optician  to 
correct  serious  or  simple  errors  of  refraction  of  the  eyes. 
The  optician  has  quite  enough  to  do  in  learning  how  to 
carry  out  the  instructions  of  the  ophthalmic  surgeon, 
without  invading  his  province  in  the  intricate  processes 
of  estimating  accurately  the  various  errors  of  refraction. 

Spectacles  are  nearly  always  to  be  preferred  to  eye- 


REST  171 

glasses,  although  the  latter  are  certainly  smarter  and 
give  a  more  distinguished  appearance  to  the  wearer. 
But  they  are  so  apt  to  get  out  of  place  that  they  may 
create  new  causes  of  defective  vision  by  reason  of  their 
refracting  portions  being  maladjusted.  Spectacle  lenses 
are  made  of  clear  flint  or  crown  glass,  and  fourteen 
carat  gold  frames  are  cheaper  in  the  long  run,  besides 
looking  better  than  steel  or  other  metal.  It  is  a  fallacy 
to  think  that  the  lighter  spectacles  are  more  comfortable 
than  heavy  ones,  because  the  heavier  the  bridge  and 
temple-pieces  of  spectacles,  the  more  comfortable  they 
are.  Eimless  glasses  are  sometimes  to  be  preferred 
because  of  the  lack  of  the  confusing  metal  margins. 
Both  spectacles  and  eyeglasses  require  careful  adjust- 
ment on  the  nose,  and  in  the  case  of  astigmatism  this  is 
a  most  essential  point.  The  lenses  should  be  cleaned 
several  times  daily  by  a  piece  of  chamois  leather  or 
unstarched  cotton  or  linen,  and  once  a  day  washed  from 
grease  and  other  impurities  with  warm  water  and  soap. 

After  the  age  of  forty-five,  when  artificial  aid  is 
required  both  for  reading  and  distant  vision,  two  different 
strengths  of  lens  are  required,  but  these  can  now  be 
combined  in  the  bifocal  spectacles  or  eyeglasses,  whose 
only  objection  is  the  necessity  of  becoming  accustomed 
to  going  up  and  down  stairs. 

From  the  description  of  the  various  errors  of  refrac- 
tion it  is  obvious  that  even  properly  fitting  glasses  may 
be  irksome  to  wear  at  first,  and  this  especially  applies 
to  astigmatism.  They  should  on  no  account  be  dis- 
carded for  this  reason,  but  patiently  worn  imtil  the 
inflammatory  conditions  set  up  by  the  eye-strain  and 
the  excessive  activity  of  the  ciliary  muscles  themselves 
quieten  down,  when  the  proper  degree  of  comfort  will  be 
assured. 


172      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

The  Child  TiiE  PREVENTION  OF  EYESTRAIN  is  quite  as  important 
^"^  °° '  as  its  cure,  as  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  fully  5  0 
per  cent,  of  school  children  have  defective  vision.  lu 
most  instances  this  has  been  brought  about  by  improper 
use  of  the  eyes  at  home,  in  badly  lighted  rooms  and  in 
unhygienic  positions  of  the  body,  and  by  badly  con- 
structed schoolrooms,  which  unhappily  are  not  yet  a 
thing  of  the  past.  Now  that  medical  inspection  of 
schools  has  become  an  established  fact,  it  may  be  hoped 
that  at  least  the  eyesight  of  the  next  generation  of 
young  people  may  be  conserved,  and  that  more  may  be 
saved  the  nuisance  of  wearing  spectacles. 

Preventive  treatment  should  begin  from  the  moment 
of  birth,  and  a  weak  boracic  lotion  should  be  employed 
as  a  cleansing  agency.  Infants'  eyes  should  never  be 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight  either  inside  the  house  or 
out  of  doors. 

The  crib  should  be  so  placed  that  the  baby's  face  is 
turned  from  the  window,  and  out  of  doors  the  face  should 
be  protected  by  a  parasol  or  awning  of  a  shade  suitable 
to  the  eyes. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  eyes  of  all  children 
are  blue  when  born,  and  that  they  only  take  on  their 
typical  colour  a  few  months  after  birth — a  response  to 
some  inborn  necessity  for  protection.  In  this  case, 
therefore,  the  dictates  of  fashion  are  not  alone  answer- 
able for  the  shade  of  the  baby's  trappings,  but  corres- 
pond for  once  to  the  demands  of  nature. 

During  the  growth  of  the  child  it  should  be  encouraged 
to  use  its  eyes  at  a  distance  rather  close  at  hand,  and  it 
must  not  be  allowed  to  use  the  same  towels,  handker- 
chiefs, or  drinking  utensils  as  other  children. 

Seven  years  of  age  is  soon  enough  for  its  eyes  to  be 
used  for  reading,  and  even  if  the  exigencies  of  modern 


REST  173 

society  or  modern  Acts  of  Parliament  compel  it  to  go  to 
school  at  an  earlier  age,  no  close  work  of  any  description 
should  be  undertaken.  Until  the  age  of  ten  a  pood 
deal  more  time  should  be  spent  in  open-air  exercise  and 
games  than  in  close  work  for  the  eyes,  and  both  these 
and  the  bodily  health  will  be  thereby  so  immensely 
strengthened  that  any  apparent  loss  of  time  will  soon 
be  made  up  for  by  increased  capability  for  work. 

School  buildings  should  be  located  in  healthful  situa- 
tions, free  from  polluted  atmosphere  and  away  from  dis- 
turbing noises,  and  with  sufficient  surrounding  space 
for  playground.  The  room  should  be  oblong,  lighted  by 
windows  on  the  left  side,  or  slightly  at  the  rear  as  well, 
and,  if  possible,  should  look  out  on  a  wide  unobstructed 
area  or  the  open  sky.  There  should  be  1  square  foot 
of  window  space  to  each  4  square  feet  of  floor  space,  and 
the  light  should  be  direct  and  come  in  over  a  sill  4 
feet  in  height — thus  over  the  heads  of  the  pupils.  The 
windows  should  be  shaded  by  holland  blinds  of  a  lightish 
colour,  and  the  walls  and  ceilings  should  also  be  of  some 
b'ght-refiectiug  colour.  The  desks  and  seats  should 
never  face  the  window,  and  should  be  adjustable.  The 
edge  of  the  desk  should  project  shghtly  over  the  edge 
of  the  seat;  the  top  should  incline  downwards  from 
the  horizontal  about  ten  degrees  towards  the  pupil,  and 
be  low  enough  to  allow  the  forearm  to  rest  without 
raising  the  shoulder.  The  seat  should  be  hard  enough 
to  support  the  whole  thigh,  and  low  enough  to  allow 
the  sole  of  the  foot  to  rest  on  the  floor.  The  back 
should  be  curved  forward  to  support  the  loins. 

All  reading  material,  whether  in  books,  charts,  maps, 
or  on  blackboards,  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  be 
legible  at  the  farthest  end  of  the  room,  and  the  hours  of 
work  should  be  carefully  suited  to  the  age  of  the  child. 


174      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

The  problem  of  artificial  lighting  is  of  vast  importance, 
and  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  nearest  approach 
to  perfect  illumination  is  that  light  which  most  nearly 
resembles  diffuse  daylight.  Incandescent  gaslight  or 
electricity  is  to  be  preferred.  In  reading,  the  head 
should  be  erect,  the  book  about  14  inches  from  the  eyes, 
with  type  large  enough  to  be  seen  at  20  inches,  and 
on  a  level  with  the  eyes. 

Eeading  at  meals  or  in  railway  carriages  is  apt  to  be 
injurious,  but  sometimes  its  beneficial  mental  effect  may  out- 
weigh any  possible  disadvantages  to  the  eyes.  Eeading  in 
bed  may  or  may  not  be  a  reprehensible  practice,  according 
as  the  rules  above  mentioned  are  neglected  or  adhered  to. 
Troubles  We  have  already  dealt  with  the  ear  in  relation  to 
Ear.^^  the  question  of  cleanliness,  and  although  we  are  now 
concerned  with  the  role  it  plays  in  fatigue,  it  will  be 
wise  to  consider  it  in  its  entirety  as  an  effective  instru- 
ment of  hearing. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  ear  in  itself  does  not 
hear,  but  only  conveys  an  appropriate  form  of  stimulus 
to  a  definite  portion  of  the  brain,  which  is  really  the 
perceptive  aural  organ. 

The  ear  consists  of  the  external,  the  middle,  and  the 
internal  portions.  The  first  we  will  consider  in  Chapter 
VIII.,  in  connection  with  accumulations  of  wax,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  here  to  add  that  foreign  bodies  such  as  beads 
and  peas  should  be  dealt  with  much  in  the  same  way.  They 
rarely  penetrate  beyond  the  soft  parts,  and  can  frequently 
be  removed  by  inclining  the  head  to  the  side  and  gently 
rubbing  in  a  circular  manner  in  front  of  the  ear,  or  by 
syringing.  Interference  of  a  more  active  kind  should 
never  be  attempted  by  other  than  a  medical  man,  and  it 
is  seldom,  indeed,  that  it  is  at  all  urgent  to  act  energetically. 
Picking  or  otherwise  irritating  the  ear  often  results  in 


REST  J « (- 

the  formation  of  abscesses  or  boils  which  may  last  for 
years  and  seriously  depress  the  vitality.  This  may  be 
entirely  obviated  by  attention  to  the  rules  laid  down 
m  Chapter  VIII.  In  most  cases  gentle  syringing  with  a 
weak  solution  of  borax  and  lukewarm  water,  with  the 
puffing  of  a  little  powdered  boric  acid  into  the  external 
ear,  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of  treatment. 

The  membrana  tympani  or  drum  of  the  ear  is  stretched 
between  the  external  and  middle  ear,  serving  largely  a 
protective  function,  although  it  also  acts  as  a  receiver 
of  the  waves  of  sound  and  conveys  them  to  the  internal 
ear  through  the  chain  of  little  ear  bones— malleus,  incus 
and  stapes— connected  with  it.     It  is   an  object  of  the 
most  mtense  reverence  amongst  non-professional  minds 
Its  perforation  being  looked  upon  as  fatal  to  all  hearing  ' 
but  that  this  is  another    popular  fallacy  is  sufficiently 
demonstrated  by   the  fact  that    it    may  be    completely 
absent    without     the    hearing    being    impaired    in    any 
recognisable  degree.     Indeed,  high  tones  may  be  heard 
all  the  better  for  its  absence,  and  it  is  really  only  a 
contrivance  for    shutting    out    many  hurtful    influences 
from  the  delicate  internal  ear  and  brain,  and  for  prevent- 
mg  the  undue  drying  of  the  contents  of  the  middle  ear. 

Artificial  ear  drums,  which  are  constantly  being  urcred 
on  the  notice  of  the  public  by  specious  advertisements 
are  often  worse  than  useless,  and,  where  they  are' 
necessary,  can  be  simulated  by  a  little  piece  of  cotton 
wool  fortmtously  placed.  Not  that  this  is  a  plea  for 
dispensing  with  the  services  of  this  membrane,  because 
Its  presence  intact  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  organism 
Oare  must  therefore  be  taken  not  to  rupture  it,  which 
has  often  been  done  accidentally  by  explosions,  blows  on 
t-ne^  ear,  kissing  on  the  ear,  and  even  violent  coughing 
as  in  whooping-cough.     But  healing  of    those  ruptures 


176      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

usually  takes  place  rapidly.  The  most  common  cause, 
however,  is  rupture  of  the  drum  from  the  inside  by  the 
discharge  of  a  middle-ear  abscess  during  scarlet  or  other 
fever,  and  in  such  an  event  the  opening  may  last  for  a 
very  long  time  and  even  for  life. 

The  middle-ear  which  lies  inside  the  drum  is  the  seat 
of  the  great  majority  of  ear  troubles,  extending  as  it 
does  forward  through  the  Eustachian  tube  to  the  throat 
and  backward  into  the  air  cells  in  the  mastoid  bone. 
As  it  is  continuous  with  the  throat  and  nose,  it  is  liable 
to  be  involved  in  the  catarrh  of  these  organs,  and  hence 
it  is  easy  to  understand  why  a  third  of  the  population 
should  be  defective  in  the  hearing  of  one  ear.  It  is 
lined  with  a  mucous  membrane  secreting  sticky  mucus, 
and  provided  with  little  hair-like  cilia  for  propelling  it 
into  the  throat  through  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  is 
likewise  the  agency  for  the  proper  ventilation  of  the 
middle  ear.  If  this  be  not  catered  for  effectively,  then 
the  cavity  will  dry  up,  the  chain  of  bones  will  become  stiff, 
and  the  membrana  tympani  bulge  into  the  cavity,  thus 
impairing  its  protective  powers,  and  inducing  all  the 
internal  noises  in  the  head  or  ear  which  are  of  such 
common  occurrence.  These  are  chiefly  brought  about 
by  the  pressure  of  the  stapes  upon  the  inner  ear,  and 
it  is  in  this  way,  or  through  this  medium  in  any  case, 
that  the  exhaustion  of  nervous  vitality  is  apt  to  take 
place. 
The  Din  of  When  we  consider  the  wholly  unnecessary  and  dis- 
tiou  ^^*'  tracting  noises  of  a  large  city — the  whistles  and  bells, 
tramcars  and  clattering  of  horses,  the  street  cries  of 
news  and  other  vendors,  and  the  piano  organs — and 
recognise  that  each  one  of  these  imposes  a  strain  upon 
a  little  muscle  attached  to  the  stapes,  called  the  stapedius, 
which  is  therefore  more  or  less  always  in  a  condition  of 


REST 


177 


contraction,  or  at  any  rate  intermittent  action,  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  that  fatigue  of  the  ear  and  brain  is  apt 
to  be  set  up,  and  that  deafness,  insomnia,  and  even 
insanity  are  frequently  induced  by  this  means.  Without 
mental  concentration  no  effective  work  can  be  done, 
because  attention  is  at  the  root  of  all  progress,  and  when 
this  is  disturbed  by  incessant  noise  of  one  kind  or  another 
the  brain  cells  are  apt  to  have  their  balance  disturbed. 

It  is  quite  a  common  experience  for  the  growth  of 
young  children  to  be  stopped  because  of  their  residence 
in  noisy  localities,  being  resumed  again  on  their  removal 
to  quieter  surroundings.  The  strongest  efforts  of 
municipalities  and  other  local  authorities  should  be 
exerted  for  the  suppression  of  all  superfluous  noises,  in 
the  interests  of  the  public  health. 

Tinnitus  aurium  is  the  expression  usually  applied  to  Noises  in 
"noises  in  the  head,"  and  these  are  often  as  troublesome  ^^^^^^d- 
as  the  occasionally  attendant  deafness.  The  noises  may 
be  of  every  character — hissing,  rushing,  roaring,  ringing 
— and  have  really  no  definite  relation  to  deafness,  as 
they  may  persist  for  years  without  deafness  or  be  absent 
when  the  hearing  is  defective.  They  are  often  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  hyper-sensitive  nervous  system,  and 
may  be  diminished  or  relieved  by  the  administration  of 
fifteen  drops  of  dilute  hydrobromic  acid  three  times  a 
day  in  plenty  of  water  after  meals. 

But  sometimes  treatment  is  of  no  avail  and  the  un- 
fortunate sufferer  becomes  the  victim  of  constant 
introspection,  with  all  its  risk  of  inducing  melancholia. 
It  is  therefore  wise  never  to  neglect  the  simple  "  colds  in 
the  head,"  which  may  have  such  serious  consequences. 
Most  of  them  can  be  kept  at  bay  by  the  simple  process 
of  cleanhness  fully  detailed  in  Chapter  VIII.  for 
douching  the  nose,  with  now  and  again  the  addition  of 


178      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  following  valuable  remedy  for  ear  trouble,  which  a 
celebrated  aurist  declared  has  greatly  interfered  with  his 
own  practice,  by  reason  of  its  efficacy.  It  is  primarily 
intended  for  use  in  earache,  but  may  be  looked  upon  as 
a  hygienic  remedy  of  value  as  well  in  prevention  as  in 
cure. 

At  the  first  symptoms  of  earache  let  the  patient  lie 
on  the  bed  with  the  painful  ear  uppermost.  Fold  a  thick 
towel  and  tuck  it  round  the  neck,  then  with  a  teaspoon 
fill  the  ear  with  warm  water.  Continue  doing  this  for 
fifteen  minutes.  The  water  will  fill  the'  external  ear 
and  flow  over  into  the  towel.  Then  turn  over  the 
head,  let  the  water  trickle  out  and  pour  in  some  warm 
glycerine  until  relief  is  obtained.  The  water  should  be 
quite  warm,  but  not  too  hot.  Probably  if  this  treatment 
were  adopted  at  an  early  stage  in  all  cases  of  earache 
more  serious  mischief  would  be  avoided  and  fewer 
"running  ears"  met  with. 

The  old-fashioned  nasal  douche  is  now  quite  discarded, 
on  account  of  the  risk  of  fluid  passing  from  the  naso- 
pharynx through  the  Eustachian  tube  into  the  middle 
ear,  and  although  the  danger  is  not  a  serious  one  it  is 
well  to  be  careful  in  blowing  the  nose  even  after  the  use 
of  a  spray  or  the  simple  means  recommended  in  Chapter 
VIII.  Indeed,  there  is  hardly  any  necessity  for  blowing 
the  nose  at  all  after  the  use  of  this  simple  method,  and 
if  it  be  done  just  before  the  face  is  washed  the  nose 
blowing  may  be  altogether  omitted.  Inflammation  of 
the  ear  should  never  be  treated  lightly,  as  it  may  have 
far-reaching  consequences,  the  source  of  which  is  not 
always  suspected.  For  example,  it  is  not  unknown  for 
paralysis  of  the  muscles  on  one  side  of  the  face  to  arise 
from  pressure  of  inflammatory  products  on  the  facial 
nerve  as  it  passes  through  the  ear.     Probably  adenoids 


REST  179 

and  enlarged  tonsils  would  not  be  so  prone  to  attack  so 
many  young  people  if  a  correct  diet  and  proper  nose 
breathing  were  adopted. 

When  the  toilet  of  the  nose,  ears,  eyes,  and  mouth 
is  included  in  our  morning  ablutions,  and  hygienic  rules 
are  otherwise  followed,  the  disease  so  common  in  these 
regions  will  be  immensely  reduced,  and  they  will  even 
become  more  tolerant  of  the  many  disadvantages  of  civilised 
existence.  Each  one,  however,  ought  to  do  his  best  to 
reduce  the  evils  to  which  he  is  at  present  subjected,  and 
therefore  it  would  be  wise,  where  possible,  to  live  in  a 
quiet  neighbourhood  so  as  to  avoid  as  much  as  may  be 
of  discordant  noise.  Where  from  any  reason  this  is  not 
possible,  one  may  be  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  plugging 
the  ears  with  cotton  wool  to  repel  the  din  of  city  life, 
and  one  may  contribute  one's  share  to  the  reduction  of 
noise  by  wearing  rubberettes  or  rubber  pads  on  the  heels, 
besides  diminishing  the  vibration  communicated  to  the 
nervous  system  through  the  spine. 

The  benign  and  soothing,  not  to  say  remedial,  influence 
of  pleasant  concerted  sounds  upon  the  ears  and  nervous 
system  is  now  well  recognised,  and  provision  is  liberally 
made  for  such  gratification  in  most  communities.  It 
may  be  taken  for  granted  that  good  music  is  sought  after 
not  so  much  for  the  satisfaction  of  a  mere  passing  whim 
as,  unconsciously,  for  its  therapeutic  effect  on  the  body. 

An  annual  holiday  of  at  least  three  weeks'  duration  Holiday. 
should  be  considered  a    necessity,  and    as  many  week- 
ends should  be  indulged  in  as  the  exigencies  of    one's 
business  and  the  depth  of  one's  pocket  will  permit. 

The  primary  idea  of  a  holiday  is  to  rest  and  hence  to 
recreate — that  is,  to  allow  time  for  recreation,  of  the 
whole  body.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  a  complete 
renewal  of    the  whole    bodily  tissues    took  place  every 


i8o    THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

seven  years.  But  even  the  most  unobservant  knows  that 
such  comparatively  non-vital  and  therefore  slow-gi'owing 
structures  as  nails  and  hairs  renew  themselves  in  much 
less  time.  When  one  considers  also  that  some  seven 
pounds  of  food  and  druik  are  swallowed  each  day  by 
most  individuals,  it  does  not  need  a  very  abstruse 
calculation  to  predict  that  a  much  shorter  space  of  time 
will  elapse  during  the  renewal  process,  and  so  accurate 
a  thinker  as  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  has  estimated 
that  in  any  case  our  most  Yital  tissues  are  renewed 
completely  once  every  three  weeks.  It  is  therefore 
desirable  that  this  should  be  the  measure  of  a  holiday, 
so  that,  with  change  of  au-  and  change  of  food,  one  may 
rebuild  the  tissues  on  a  more  secure  footing  once  each 
year. 

Just  how  this  hoMay  should  be  spent  is  a  problem 
for  each  individual  to  solve  for  himself,  but  it  is 
astounding  how  the  average  business  man  fails  to  employ 
his  business  instinct  in  the  consideration  of  it.  He 
slaves  away  for  months  on  'Change  in  the  heart  of  the 
City  without  a  single  particle  of  exercise,  and  then  on 
the  11th  of  August  arrives  dead  beat  at  some  inhospit- 
able moor  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  at  day- 
break on  the  12th  essays  a  twelve  hom's'  tramp  on  the 
hills.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  he  fails  in  the 
attempt,  and  is  lucky  if  he  escapes  with  au  attack  of 
syncope  and  not  a  x^ermanently  damaged  heart. 

Walking  tours,  mountain  climbing,  and  other  laborious 
forms  of  exertion  should  only  be  attempted  by  those  in 
training.  Most  people  would  do  well  to  spend  the  first 
week  of  their  holiday — if  not  in  bed  stuffing  themselves 
full  of  wholesome  food — at  least  in  an  organised  attempt 
at  "  slacking  about,"  so  as  to  lay  in  some  energy  for 
healthy  exertion  at  a  later  period  of  their  vacation. 


REST  i8i 

The  holiday  place  should  ahvays  be  chosen  carefully 
to  suit  the  constitution,  most  people  deriving  greater 
benefit  from  a  bracing  climate  than  from  a  relaxing  one, 
though  from  the  definition  one  often  gets  of  a  "  bracing  " 
locality,  this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  The 
seaside  is  such  an  attraction  for  the  majority  of  inland 
folks  that  they  resort  thither  without  very  much  con- 
sideration as  to  its  suitability  or  otherwise,  and  often 
pay  the  penalty  by  going  home  quite  unfit  to  resume 
their  labours.  A  week  or  so  on  a  high,  dry  moorland 
place  is  usually  worth  a  month  at  the  seaside,  on 
account  of  its  stimulating  properties  on  the  digestion  and 
metabolism.  Obviously,  however,  the  more  vigorous 
and  youthful  member  of  society  will  benefit  most  from 
such  a  place,  and  the  less  vigorous  and  the  elderly  will 
find  a  milder  place  more  suitable. 

The  climate  of  this  country  is  so  moist  even  in  our 
driest  seasons  that  a  trip  to  the  Continent  of  Europe  or 
America  makes  a  valuable  and  agreeable  change — 
chiefly  because  of  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere. 
Doubtless  the  change  of  food  and  scenery  has  something 
to  do  with  the  beneficial  result,  but  too  much  si^ht-seeinc^ 
usually  ends  in  a  headache  from  fatigue  of  the  eyes,  if 
no  more  serious  disaster  lies  in  wait. 

An  occasional  week-end  is  of  the  greatest  value  in 
recuperation  of  the  body,  being  an  unbending  of  the  bow, 
as  it  were,  though  sometimes  the  same  length  of  time 
spent  in  bed  will  produce  much  more  valuable  results. 

Practical  Summaey 

1.  Sleep  should  never  be  restricted  to  a  definite  number 
of  hours,  but  for  the  average  man  eight  hours  or  more 
should  be  the  rule. 


1 82      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

2.  Sleep  does  not  attack  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
simultaneously,  but  in  order, — first  the  brain  centres 
presiding  over  the  voluntary  muscles,  then  the  rest  of 
the  brain,  thereafter  the  spinal  cord,  eyes,  and  ears 
gradually  succumbing. 

3.  Sleep  is  the  only  time  for  the  nervous  system  to 
recuperate,  as  during  all  the  waking  period  it  is  actively 
functioning. 

4.  Change  of  occupation  is  a  rest,  but  eats  into  the 
reserve  stock  of  energy,  and  so  more  quickly  brings  about 
fatigue.  Physical  culture  or  any  exhausting  exercise 
before  bedtime  is  usually  a  mistake. 

5.  The  bedroom  should  be  large,  airy,  quiet,  have  its 
window  open  night  and  day,  and  covered  by  blue  blinds 
to  exclude  early  morning  light. 

6.  Bed-clothes  should  be  light  and  warm. 

7.  The  best  advice  for  wooing  unwilling  sleep  is  to 
copy  Nature's  method  by  relaxing  all  the  muscles, 
breathing  slowly  and  in  a  shallow  fashion,  and  engaging 
the  roving  attention  on  this  rhythmical  respiration  and 
the  relaxation  of  the  muscles. 

8.  A  rest  of  at  least  twenty  minutes  should  be  taken 
after  each  meal  in  a  reclining  posture. 

9.  Fatigue  is  produced  by  an  increase  of  the  acid 
waste  products  in  the  blood  and  tissues. 

10.  Neurasthenia  is  simply  a  condition  of  chronic 
fatigue,  characterised  by  a  tendency  to  more  rapid, 
though  weaker,  response  to  stimuli. 

11.  The  spirit  of  repose  should  be  cultivated  by  all, 
especially  those  of  a  nervous  temperament,  so  that  energy 
need  not  be  wasted  in  useless  movements,  such  as 
twiddling  the  fingers,  etc. 

12.  Errors  of  refraction  in  the  eye,  especially  astig- 
matism, produce  a  great  deal  of  strain  and  are  apt  to 


REST 


183 


induce  many  morbid  phenomena  in  parts  apparently  not 
connected  with  the  eye,  e.g.  headache,  epilepsy,  constipa- 
tion, etc. 

13.  The  remedial  treatment  of  eye-strain  consists 
in  the  possession  of  appropriate  glasses  or  spectacles,  the 
measurement  for  which  should  be  entrusted  to  a  medical 
man  practising  eye  diseases  as  a  speciality. 

14.  The  prevention  of  eye-strain  is  equally  important, 
and  consists  in  the  provision  of  proper  desks  and  seats 
in  the  schoolroom,  proper  type  for  school  books,  and 
proper  lighting  of  schoolrooms  and  houses. 

1 5.  Unnecessary  noises  should  be  prohibited,  as  tending 
to  exhaust  the  nervous  force  like  eye-strain. 

16.  Artificial  ear  drums  are  seldom  necessary. 

17.  Pleasant  sounds  like  music  have  a  powerful 
influence  for  good  on  the  body. 

18.  An  annual  holiday  of  three  weeks'  duration 
should  be  taken,  as  it  is  calculated  that  the  body  renews 
itself  in  this  time. 

19.  Occasional  week-ends  are  of  great  value. 


CHAPTEE   VI. 
AIR. 

LAW  V. — "Live  night  and  day  as  far  as  possible 
in  the  fresh  air." 

THE  open  air  is  the  greatest  disease -preventing  and 
disease- curing  agency  in  existence,  and  blessed  is 
he  whose  labours  are  conducted  therein.  It  seems 
strange  in  these  latter  days,  when  so  much  attention  is 
being  paid  to  diet  with  its  three  or  four  meals  per  day, 
that  air,  of  which  we  consume  close  upon  a  thousand 
meals  per  hour,  should  not  have  attracted  at  least  as 
much  attention,  especially  when  we  consider  that  the 
volume  of  air  we  inhale  daily  is  by  weight  twice  as 
heavy  as  the  weight  of  all  the  food  and  drink  we 
swallow. 

A  short  study  of  the  function  of  respiration  will, 
however,  demonstrate  the  prime  importance  not  only  of 
pure  air,  but  of  a  correct  method  of  breathing. 

The  object  of  respiration  is  to  supply  oxygen  for  the 
oxidation  or  combustion  processes  carried  on  in  the 
tissues,  and  to  remove  the  carbonic  acid  and  other 
organic  excrementitious  substances  formed  as  a  result 
thereof.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  or,  we  might  say,  it  consists 
of  two  processes — 


AIR  185 

(1)  External,  i.e.,  the  exchange  of  gases   between 

the  external  air  and  the  gases  in  the  blood 
contained  in  the  lungs. 

(2)  Internal,   i.e.,  the    exchange    of    gases    in    the 

capillary  blood  vessels  and  the  tissues  of  the 
body. 
The    essential    organs    of    respiration  are    the    lungs,  The 
which    are   contained    in    the    thorax    or    chest    cavit}^  ?''^^*^^°S 
bounded  behind  by  the  vertebral  column,  in  front  by  the  atu^'' 
breast-bone,  beneath  by  the  diaphragm,  and  at  the  sides 
by    the    ribs.     Between    the    ribs    are    the    intercostal 
muscles,   and    these,    along   with    many    other    muscles, 
enlarge    the    chest    cavity    by    elevating    the    ribs    and 
depressing  the  diaphragm,  and,  by  this  means  a  vacuum 
is  created,  the  air  rushes  in  through  the  nose,  trachea, 
and  bronchial  tubes,  and  so  the  lungs  are  expanded. 

The  trachea  or  windpipe  and  bronchial  tubes  are  wide 
tubes,  which  are  unable  to  collapse  because  their-  walls 
are  composed  of  loops  of  cartilage  connected  by  muscular 
fibres.     They  are  Imed  by  mucous  membrane  containing 
many  small  glands  secreting  mucus,  and  covered  by  little 
cilia   or   hair-like   processes  which   keep  propelling   the 
mucus  with  its  entangled  particles  of  dust  toward's  the 
mouth.     This  dust  is  also  in  part  removed  by  lymph  or 
adenoid  tissue  in  the  tubes,  and  so  carried  to  the  lym- 
phatic glands.     As  the  bronchi  become  smaller  they  lose 
their  cartilagmous  walls,  and  are  then  contained  by  two 
layers  of  muscular  fibres,  which  are  apt  to  be  thrown 
into  a  condition  of  spasm  and  so  constitute  an  attack  of 
asthma.     The  lung  tissue  is  permeated  in  all  directions 
by   these  branching  bronchial   tubes,  which   divide  and 
subdivide  like  the  branches  of  a  tree  till  they  are  so 
small  and  minute  that  they  are  as  fine  as  a  hair  and  are 
hence  called  "  capillary."     At  the  end  of  these  capillary 


1 86      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

bronchial  tubes  are  the  air  vesicles,  surrounded  and 
comx^letely  enveloped  by  the  minute  pulmonary  blood 
vessels,  and  embedded  in  the  elastic  pulmonary  tissue. 
In  this  dense  network  of  pulmonary  capillaries  the 
blood  is  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  and  only  separated 
from  the  air  in  the  air  vesicles  by  the  thin  capillary  wall 
and  still  thinner  air-cell  wall,  through  which  it  is  quite 
easy  for  the  interchange  to  take  place  between  the  gases 
in  the  blood  and  the  lungs. 

The  total  superficial  area  of  these  air  vesicles  is 
said  to  be  one  hundred  square  yards,  or  practically  fifty 
times  the  superficial  area  of  the  body,  and  thus  it  is  easy 
to  understand  why  fairly  good  health  can  be  maintained 
even  when  only  one-half  of  this  space  is  in  good  working 
order.  The  bronchial  tubes  are  themselves  a  division 
of  the  windpipe,  and  not  only  branch  downwards  into 
the  very  lowest  recesses  of  the  lungs  in  the  back,  but 
upwards  into  the  highest  points  of  the  lungs  one  inch  or 
more  above  the  collar-bone. 

The  lower  divisions  of  the  bronchial  tubes  are  straight, 
or  nearly  so,  whilst  those  which  turn  upwards  are  spiral. 

The  mechanism  of  respiration  consists  in  an  alternate 
expansion  of  the  lungs  (inspiration),  and  contraction 
(expiration).  As  the  extremely  elastic  lungs  are  contained 
in  the  airtight  box  of  the  thorax  they  must  distend 
with  every  dilation  of  the  chest  cavity  and  diminish  in 
size  with  every  contraction  thereof.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  empty  the  lungs  of  all  their  air,  as  about 
100  cubic  inches  of  what  is  called  residual  air  always 
remains  in  them.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are  100 
cubic  inches  of  air  remaining  in  the  lungs  after  an 
ordinary  expiration,  and  this  is  called  supplemental  air. 
Thus  there  are  200  cubic  inches  of  air  in  the  chest  after 
an    expiration.     With    an    ordinary    gentle    inspiration 


AIR 


187 


about  30  cubic  inches  of  air,  called  tidal  air,  may  be 
introduced,  whilst  by  a  very  deep  and  prolonged  inspira- 
tion it  is  possible  to  introduce  100  cubic  inches  more, 
which  is  called  complemental  air. 


Maximum 


Inspiration 
Ordinary 

100  cubic  inches 

COMPLEMBNTAI,  AlE. 

Inspiration 
Ordinary 

30  cubic  inches         1 
Tidal  Air.           j 

Expiration 
Maximum 

100  cubic  inches 
Supplemental  Axe. 

! 

Expiration 

100  cubic  inches 
Residual  Aie. 

Vital  Capacity. 


The  vital  capacity  is  the  quantity  of  air  inspired  or  Deep 
expired  in  the  strongest  possible  respiration,  and  this,  Ei'^^'t^i™? 
it  will  be  seen,  amounts  to  230  cubic  inches.  This 
quantity  cannot,  however,  be  introduced  into  the  lungs 
without  long  and  careful  practice  of  what  is  now  called 
deep  breathing,  a  practice  the  importance  of  which 
cannot  be  overestimated,  as  eight  times  more  air  (and 
therefore  oxygen)  than  usual  is  by  this  means  obtained 
at  each  breath  for  blood-purifying  purposes. 

The  two  most  valuable  functions  of  deep  breathing 
are — 

(1)  To  develop  the  chest  capacity,  and  hence  the 

lungs. 

(2)  More    rapidly    to    deplete     the    blood    of    its 

poisonous  carbonic  acid  and  organic  matter. 
It  has  also  been  stated   that  the  fairly  considerable 


1 88      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

excursions  made  by  the  ribs  in  their  rise  and  fall  are 
capable  of  strongly  stimulating  the  blood-making  functions 
of  the  red  bone  marrow ;  and  so  deep  breathing  is  a 
direct  incentive  to  the  manufacture  of  a  greater  supply 
of  healthy  blood.  Niemeyer  says :  "  Thirty  deep  in- 
spirations taken  every  morning  in  a  pure  atmosphere 
and  no  tight-lacing  will  do  more  for  the  colour  of  the 
cheeks  than  a  tumbler  of  chalybeate  or  a  dose  of  iron 
pills." 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  points  noted  by  a  medical 
man  in  examining  men  for  life  assurance  is  the  limited 
power  they  possess  of  expanding  their  chest  capacity. 
The  average  difference  between  the  circumference  of  the 
chest  in  fullest  inspiration  and  fullest  expiration  is  only 
two  and  a  half  inches,  and  yet  three  months'  careful  and 
steady  practice  of  deep  breathing  will  increase  this  margin 
by  as  many  inches  again. 

But  the  average  man  does  not  fully  utilise  even  the 
meagre  vital  capacity  which  he  has  developed,  and  hence 
his  blood  is  never  really  j)roperly  ventilated,  but  retains 
a  great  amount  of  poison.  Hence  the  lassitude  and  lack 
of  energy  so  commonly  displayed  by  business  men  and 
working  men,  who  are,  in  fact,  being  poisoned  by  their 
own  excretions  in  quite  a  similar  fashion  indeed  to  the 
poor  wretches  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  Morell 
Mackenzie  says :  "  The  process  of  re-breathing  air  that 
has  already  been  used,  if  long  continued,  leads  to 
asphyxia  and  death,  but  short  of  this,  much  so-called 
'delicacy,'  susceptibility  to  cold,  languor,  headache,  and 
nervous  depression." 

Xow,  given  the  power  to  introduce,  say  200  cubic 
inches  of  air  at  each  breath,  and  let  this  be  done  even 
half  a  dozen  times  every  hour,  the  result  would  be 
an  enormous  strengthening  of  the  limg  tissue,  a  greater 


AIR  189 

purity  of  blood,  stimulation  of  the  circulation,  and 
removal  of  all  stagnation  and  congestion,  making  it 
more  difficult  for  pneumonia  and  other  such  diseases  to 
enter.  With  such  a  chest  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
to  be  attacked  by  consumption  of  the  lungs  or  phthisis 
pulmonalis, 

Eemember  that  it  has  now  been  well  proven  that  this  Tlic 
disease  owes  its  origin  to  the  tubercle  bacillus — a  germ  S^J'"'®,  ^''''' 
which  is  practically  universal  and  ubiquitous,  but  which 
is  unable  to  grow  or  to  take  root  properly  unless  it  can 
lie  undisturbed  in  its  quarters  for  about  eleven  clear 
days.  Now,  what  chance  has  such  a  germ  to  settle  in 
the  lungs  of  an  individual  who  at  stated  times  freely 
admits  nearly  eight  times  the  normal  amount  of  pure 
life-giving  air,  reaching  to  the  farthest  recesses  of  his 
lungs  ?     Practically  none. 

But  in  a  lung  which  is  not  fully  developed  the 
inspired  air  takes  the  easiest  course  and  goes  straight 
through   the   tubes  which   offer   least   resistance — those 

that   branch   down    towards    the   back    of    the   lungs 

leaving  un attempted  the  more  difficult  passage  of  the 
spiral  tubes  in  the  apex  of  the  lungs.  It  will  also  be 
noted  that  in  expiration  the  air  rushing  out  of  the  lower 
tubes  in  the  lung  will  act  as  an  obstruction  to  the  air 
which  may  be  passing  out  of  the  spiral  portions,  because 
the  latter  has  to  turn  a  corner  back  into  the  windpipe 
and  the  former  has  a  straight  course. 

It  thus  comes  about  that  a  certain  portion  of  the  luno- 
above  the  level  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  bronchial  tubes 
and  in  the  region  of  the  collar-bone  is  rarely  well 
developed  at  all ;  the  lung  tissue  is  non-elastic  and  badly  ^ 
trained,  and  the  particles  of  dust  or  organic  matter 
which  arc  carried  in  by  the  air  or  expelled  by  the  blood 
are  allowed  to  stagnate  and  act  as  irritants  to  the  luncr 

o 


1 90     THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

tissue.  Irritation  cannot  long  exist  without  inflammation 
being  set  up,  and  when  this  takes  place — a  condition 
talked  of  euphemistically  amongst  medical  men  as 
"  bronchial  catarrh  "  or  "  consolidation  " — then  comes  the 
opportunity  of  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

It  cannot  by  any  possible  chance  settle  down  on  the 
healthy  mucous  membrane,  because  not  only  is  this 
furnished  with  little  hair-like  processes  called  cilia, 
which  are  in  constant  movement  towards  the  outside  air, 
but  it  is  covered  with  mucus  which  is  kept  in  constant 
motion  by  the  cilia,  and  hence  any  microbe  which  may 
be  rash  enough  to  enter  the  bronchial  tubes  is  quickly 
floated  to  the  throat,  whence  it  is  expelled  by  a  gentle  and 
almost  imperceptible  clearing  of  the  throat  into  the  open 
air. 

But  when  even  the  slightest  inflammation  is  set  up 
in  the  manner  described,  then  not  only  are  the  cilia 
paralysed,  but  the  mucus  is  altered  in  its  character  and 
becomes  an  excellent  place  for  breeding  the  germs ;  in 
other  words,  a  "  suitable  nidus "'  has  been  discovered,  and 
"  incipient  phthisis  "  has  developed. 

The  late  Prof.  W.  T.  Gairdner  long  ago  taught  that 
quite  60  per  cent,  of  the  people  who  died  of  diseases 
other  than  tuberculosis  had  evidences  of  healed  tubercle 
in  theu"  lungs,  and  had  thus  been  victims  of  phthisis 
pulmonalis  which  had  been  cured  in  a  natural  way, 
proving  the  eminent  curability  of  a  disease  usually 
considered  to  be  incurable.  It  also  proves,  however, 
that  the  human  subject  is  extremely  liable  to  become 
affected  with  tubercle,  and  it  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated by  experiment  that  it  can  always  develop  in 
those  in  whom  the  vital  capacity  of  the  lungs  is 
diminished  below  the  normal.  Freund,  indeed,  has 
shown  that  in  the  first  and  second  ribs  of  consumptives 


AIR  191 

the  costal  cartilages  become  converted  into  bone,  an 
evidence  that  the  natural  resiliency  of  the  chest  cavity 
has  been  below  par  and  the  lungs  have  been  unable  to 
attain  their  natural  development. 

Many  methods  have  been  devised  for  practising  deep  Over- 
breathing,  some  of  which  are  not  altogether  free  from  ^.^^*^^- 
risk.    ^  There  is  a  general  impression  among  medical  men  ^'°''' 
that    it  is  quite  possible  to  over-expand    the   lungs  in 
excessive  elTorts    to    develop  them,  and    so    to  produce 
an  over-distension  of    the  air  vesicles  and   a  condition 
allied    to  emphysema.      This  condition  is  quite  normal 
in  old  age,  because  of    the  degeneration  of  the  elastic 
tissues  of  the  lungs,  and  it  is  easily  produced  in  women, 
as  a  result,  no    doubt,  of    the  restriction   in  breathing 
which  is  caused    by  unhygienic  corset  wearing.      I  am 
quite  convinced,  however,  that  in  a  normal  adult  true 
emphysema  is  never  brought  about  by  any  amount  of 
deep  breathing,— although,  of  course,  it  is  wise  not  to 
risk   even  the  possibility  of  an  over-distension.     When 
this  condition  does  occur  (whatever  be  the  cause),  the 
chief  symptom  is  that  the  automatic  regularity  of  respira- 
tion is    disturbed   and    the   individual   is   compelled    to 
remind  himself    that  it    is  necessary  to  take  a  breath. 
Such   a   contingency   can   always    be   prevented    by  re- 
membering that  when   the   inspiration   has  reached   its 
fullest  extent  it  is  unwise  to  retain  the  air  in  the  lun^s 
for  any  appreciable  time,  but  in  five  seconds  at  the  out- 
side to  begin  slowly  to  exhale. 

Incorrect  methods  have  been  suggested  of  attempting, 
by  changing  the  posture,  to  introduce  more  and  still 
more  air,  but  I  am  convinced  that  these  are  harmful 
and  will  only  end  in  disaster. 

As  correct  breathing  is  also  the  secret  of  good  siugina  ^  Singer's 
the  foUowing  simple  method  suggested  by  Signer  BoncT  ZT'^' 
13 


192      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  famous  tenor  at  Covent  Garden,  will  be  found  quite 
satisfactory  and  absolutely  safe. 

Lie  fiat  on  the  back,  with  the  head  directly  on  the 
floor  and  the  arms  outstretched  straight  above  the  head, 
by  this  means  expanding  the  four  lower  ribs.  Take 
a  deep  breath,  extending  the  diaphragm  as  fully  as 
possible ;  then  slowly  exhale,  pressing  the  air  from  the 
bottom  of  the  lungs  first,  drawing  the  diaphragm  inwards 
to  commence  with  and  upwards  at  the  end  until  all  the 
air  is  forced  from  the  lungs,  thus  expelling  the  air  from 
the  chest  as  one  would  empty  a  tube  of  paint.  By 
practising  the  method  twenty  times  each  morning  and 
taking  as  many  deep  breaths  throughout  the  day,  the  vital 
capacity  will  gradually  be  increased  to  a  point  commen- 
surate with  perfectly  healthy  lungs. 

Some  people  will  probably  find  that  this  voluntary 
practice  of  deep  breathing  is  not  only  irksome  but  soon 
brings  about  exhaustion,  a  result  not  to  be  wondered  at 
when  one  considers  the  enormous  number  of  large 
muscles  brought  into  activity,  without  there  being  at  the 
same  time  a  corresponding  natural  desire  for  air.  Where 
a  thirst  for  air  (as  one  might  call  it)  is  engendered,  as  in 
climbing  and  swimming,  the  attendant  fatigue  is  not 
nearly  so  great,  and  such  exercises  are  splendid  chest 
developers. 
A  Distinc-  The  vital  capacity  varies  with  the  height,  age,  body- 
sfv  °^  weight,  and  state  of  the  health,  as  does  also  the  number 
of  respirations,  which  in  a  normal  adult  average  seventeen 
per  minute,  or  one  for  every  four  beats  of  the  heart. 

In  females  the  type  of  breathing  is  usually  called 
costal,  on  the  theory  that  it  is  brought  about  chiefly 
by  the  raisiag  of  the  breast-bone  and  the  ribs,  whilst  in 
males  it  is  due  to  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm  more 
than  to  th©  elevation  of  the  ribs,  and  hence  it  is  called 


Sex 


AIR  193 

the  abdominal  type.  This  is  the  usual  distinction  of  the 
text-books,  but  it  is  open  to  a  considerable  amount  of 
doubt,  as  in  many  examinations  in  the  nearly  nude  con- 
dition practically  no  difference  is  observable. 

Probably  the  apparent  difference  arises  out  of  the 
wearing  of  unhygienic  corsets,  and  can  only  be  noted 
whilst  they  are  being  worn.  It  is  as  well  that  this 
confusion  should  be  noted,  for  neither  type  of  breathing 
•  is  capable  of  perfectly  utilising  all  the  pulmonary  tissue, 
since  only  those  parts  of  the  lungs  in  contact  with  the 
expanding  chest  wall  are  brought  into  action.  The 
whole  chest  walls  should  be  moved,  and  likewise, 
especially  in  expiration,  the  abdominal  muscles,  this 
being  a  most  important  factor  in  effective  speaking  and 
singing. 

In  abdominal  breathing  pure  and  simple  the  diaphragm 
is  lowered  and  the  chest  increased  in  depth  from  above 
downwards,  but  when  the  lower  ribs  are  also  freely 
brought  into  action — what  is  called  by  teachers  of  sing- 
ing "  lower  costal  breathing  " — the  depth  of  the  chest  is 
diminished,  but  the  area  of  the  base  is  greatly  increased. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  has  been  demonstrated 
mathematically  that  the  lung  contains  the  greatest 
amount  of  air  when  the  lower  ribs  are  raised  and  the 
abdominal  muscles  not  bulged  out,  but  slightly  drawn  in 
during  inspiration.  It  must  be  noted  that  inspiration 
is  entirely  a  muscular  act,  and  that  in  ordinary  quiet 
breathing  only  the  diaphragm,  the  muscles  between  the 
ribs,  and  a  few  small  muscles  passing  from  the  spine  to 
the  ribs,  are  brought  into  action,  raising  and  rotating  the 
ribs  and  depressing  the  midriff.  During  forced  inspiration, 
on  the  other  hand,  such  as  takes  place  in  violent 
asthmatic  attacks,  muscles  of  the  trunk,  neck,  face,  and 
throat  are  all  brought  into  operation.     In  ordinary  ex- 


194      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


Air 
Before 


piration  the  chest  cavity  is  diminished  by  the  weight  of 
the  chest  wall  and  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  ribs,  and 
contents  of  the  abdomen,  but  in  extraordinary  expiration 
nearly  as  many  muscles  are  used  as  in  inspiration. 

Hence  deep  breathing  is  really  a  valuable  muscular 
exercise.  In  addition,  however,  it  removes  a  tendency 
to  bronchitis,  facilitating  the  expulsion  of  mucus  and 
giving  the  sufferer  a  peculiar  feeling  of  relief  and  com- 
fort in  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  It  stimulates  the  liver 
by  squeezing  it  between  the  diaphragm  and  the 
abdominal  wall.  It  exerts  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
stomach,  and,  combined  with  the  copious  drinking  of 
cold  water  between  meals,  is  an  incentive  to  regular 
action  of  the  bowels.  It  benefits  the  heart  by  stimu- 
lating the  circulation,  and  for  the  same  reason  improves 
varicose  veins,  and,  as  elsewhere  pointed  out,  a  few  deep 
breaths  quickly  put  an  end  to  blushing,  stage  fright,  and 
hiccough. 

The  following  table  shows  the  difference  between  the 


and  after,  inspired  air  and  the  expired  air  in  100  volumes: — 


Inspieed  Air  Contains. 


Expired  Air  Contains. 


Volumes 

Volumes 

Oxygen    . 

, 

20-81 

Oxygen    .         .         .         .16-03 

Nitrogen  . 

, 

79-2 

Nitrogen.         .         .         .79-3 

Carbonic  acid 

0-04 

Carbonic  acid   .         .         .        4"38 

"Watery  vapour 

0-84 

Watery  vapour,  saturated. 

Traces        of 

ammonia- 

A     large     proportion     of 

dust    and 

spores 

and 

putrefiable      organic 

germs. 

matter. 

The  expired  air  is  distinguished  from  the  inspired  air, 
therefore,  by  (1)  one-fifth  less  oxygen,  (2)  a  small  quan- 
tity more  nitrogen,  (3)  one  hundred  times  more  carbonic 
acid,  (4)  saturation  with  aqueous  vapour,  (5)  greater 
warmth,  (6)  a  large  quantity  of  organic  material,  which 
is  the    dangerous   constituent.     From    1    to    2^    lb.    of 


AIR  195 

watery  vapour  are  given  off  by  the  lungs  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  about  one  sixty-seventh  part  of  the 
body  weight  of  watery  vapour  is  given  off  by  the 
skin. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  think  that  you  can  suck 
the  air,  in  breathing,  right  down  to  the  very  bottom  of 
your  lungs ;  this  is  impossible,  as  the  air  only  passes 
into  the  windpipe  and  the  upper  air  passages,  and  then 
only  by  diffusion  into  the  lower  reaches  of  the  lungs,  i.e. 
by  a  process  of  commingling,  so  that  the  ak  above  and  the 
air  below  are  pretty  equally  mixed.  You  cannot  increase 
the  combustion  in  the  tissues  by  the  number  and  depth 
of  the  respirations,  but  you  can  get  rid  of  more  carbonic 
acid  and  organic  impurities  from  the  lungs  and  blood, 
thus  preventing  the  paralysing  effect  of  these  poisons  on 
the  tissues.  External  respiration  introduces  oxygen  into 
the  blood,  but  internal  respiration  carries  it  into  the 
tissues,  where  combustion  takes  place  and  the  carbonic 
acid  is  formed. 

The  process  of  internal  respiration  is  as  follows :  The 
Oxygen  is  carried  from  the  air  through  the  walls  of  the  qI^^i^I 
air  vesicles  into  the  blood ;  thence  by  the  circulation 
to  the  ultimate  capillaries ;  thence  through  the  walls  of 
the  capillaries  into  the  tissue  cells ;  there  it  combines 
with  the  bioplasm,  and  during  metabolism  is  formed  into 
carbonic  acid,  which  passes  through  the  tissue  cell  into 
the  lymph  space,  back  through  the  veins  to  the  lungs, 
and  thence  through  the  air  cells  into  the  bronchial  tubes 
and  so  into  the  outside  air. 

Many  suspended  particles  in  the  air  are  carried  into 
the  lungs,  especially  if  mouth  breathing  be  practised  in- 
stead of  nose  breathing.  By  this  natural  channel  most 
of  the  particles  are  caught  by  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  nose,  in  addition  to  which  the  air  is  warmed   and 


196      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

moistened  and  so  made  more  acceptable  to  the  air  vesicles. 
The  air  is  moistened  by  the  evaporation  of  the  watery- 
secretion  of  the  mucous  glands,  and  it  is  said  that  quite 
2  quarts  of  water  are  by  this  means  yielded  up  to  the 
inspired  air.  This  no  doubt  also  aids  the  rise  of  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  but  the  important  factor  in  this  regard  is 
its  passage  over  the  highly  vascular  mucous  membrane, 
the  blood  rapidly  parting  with  its  heat  to  the  air,  so  that 
even  at  freezing-point  it  can  be  warmed  by  the  nose 
alone  to  81°  F. 

This  warming  process  can  be  carried  out  by  the 
mouth  as  well  as  the  nose,  but  not  so  the  moistening  ; 
hence  the  dry  parched  morning  tongue  and  throat  of 
mouth  breathers.  The  sense  of  smell  and  the  nerves  of 
the  nose  are  also  of  great  value  in  guarding  the  lungs 
from  noxious  gases  and  irritating  fumes,  and  so  sensitive 
is  this  latter  mechanism  that  I  have  known  a  case  of 
asthma  which  arose  from  inhaling  the  sulphurous  acid 
fumes  in  a  room  which  was  undergoing  the  process  of 
disinfection.  Mouth  breathers  are  notoriously  liable  to 
tonsillitis  and  other  forms  of  sore  throat,  bronchitis,  and 
many  other  chest  diseases. 
T^e    _  Particles  of   steel    are   introduced   into   the   lungs  of 

Disinfec-    grinders,   file-makers,  weavers,  spinners,  millers,  bakers, 
tant.  Q^Q^^  where  special   precautions  are  not   taken  to   carry 

them  away  by  artificial  means.  Coal  and  charcoal  or 
soot  pass  into  the  coal  miner's  lungs,  producing  the 
condition  called  anthracosis,  and  in  a  minor  form  into 
the  bronchial  tubes  and  lungs  of  dwellers  in  cities, 
causing  the  black  spit  which  is  such  a  common  feature 
in  the  expectoration  hawked  up  from  the  throat  in  the 
morning  whilst  washing.  Micro-organisms  of  various 
kinds,  e.g.  diphtheria  in  the  throat,  glanders  in  the  nose, 
measles,  and   whooping-cough   in    the    bronchial    tubes, 


AIR  197 

pueumonia  and  tubercle  in  the  air  cells,  hay  monads  in 
the  nose  are  quite  common.  Proper  breathing  usually 
disposes  of  most  of  these  and  others  as  well,  and  the 
smuts  in  the  air  are  caught  up  by  the  white  blood 
corpuscles  and  deposited  in  the  bronchial  glands,  where 
they  are  more  or  less  harmless.  In  cities  proper  scaveng- 
ing and  watering  should  effectually  dispose  of  most  of 
these  troubles ;  but,  after  all,  healthy  nasal  and  bronchial 
mucus  is  the  most  efficient  disinfectant  in  existence. 

As  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  section  a  few  exercises  Breathing 
favouring  deep  breathing  may  be  detailed.  Ordinary  ^®^°^^^^' 
walking,  which  is  after  all  the  basis  of  most  rational 
exercises,  is  not  of  great  value  in  this  connection,  although 
when  practised  in  the  true  heel-and-toe  athletic  fashion, 
at  four  miles  an  hour,  it  encourages  chest  expansion, 
increases  the  number  of  respirations,  and  if  due  attention 
be  paid  can  easily  be  made  a  most  valuable  breathing 
practice.  Walking  at  a  slower  pace  can  be  made  much 
more  effective  from  this  point  of  view  by  placing  a 
stick  or  umbrella  behind  the  back  and  through  the 
elbows,  and  by  the  adoption  of  this  device  gentle  climb- 
ing backwards,  considerably  increases  the  chest  expansion. 
Hill  climbing  and  running  are  the  most  notable  natural 
exercises  with  a  reputation  for  compelling  deep  breathing, 
and  cycling  is  perhaps  the  one  exercise  least  suitable  for 
this  purpose.  At  the  close  of  the  section  on  physical 
culture  a  few  exercises  will  be  described  well  calculated 
to  develop  the  chest,  but  the  three  following  are 
suggested  as  having  special  efficacy  to  encourage  chest 
expansion. 

(1)  Stand  quite  erect  with  the  heels  together  and 
feet  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  First  empty  the  lungs  of 
as  much  as  possible  of  their  supplemental  air  by  bending 
forward  and  crossing  the  arms  in  front  of  the  body,  at 


198      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  same  time  exhaling  deeply.  Then  slowly  regain  the 
erect  posture,  uncross  the  arms,  stretching  them  gradually 
out  and  upwards,  at  the  same  time  filling  the  lungs 
through  the  nose  to  their  fullest  possible  extent.  Ten 
or  twelve  breaths  of  this  description  at  the  open  bed- 
room window  every  morning  during  or  after  exercise  will 
do  much  to  enlarge  the  chest  cavity  and  develop  the 
lungs.  Five  seconds  may  be  allotted  to  the  inspiratory 
and  seven  to  the  expiratory  movement.  Special  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  expiration,  which  should  be  com- 
plete. By  degrees  it  will  be  quite  possible  to  utilise 
twenty  seconds  in  inspiration  and  close  on  thirty  in  the 
expiratory  movement.  At  the  end  of  the  inspiration 
suspend  the  breath  without  shutting  it  completely  off. 

(2)  Stand  quite  erect  as  before  with  right  hand  on 
the  right  hip  and  left  arm  raised  over  the  head — the 
fingers  stretching  down  to  the  tip  of  the  right  ear. 
Now  take  a  long  deep  breath,  at  the  same  time  bending 
the  body  towards  the  right  side.  This  expands  the 
left  lung  more  fully  than  the  previous  exercise.  The 
same  exercise  can  be  done  for  the  right  lung  by 
reversing  the  arms. 

(3)  An  extremely  valuable  exercise  for  expanding 
the  chest,  correcting  the  gait,  giving  graceful  movements 
in  walking  and  strengthening  the  erector  spinse — the 
strong  back  muscles.  Stand  perfectly  erect,  clasp  the 
hands  behind  the  back  at  full  stretch.  Thrust  the 
hands  forcibly  straight  down,  lifting  the  ribs  as  high 
as  possible  at  the  same  time.  If  the  chin  be  held  up 
the  result  is  emphasised.     (See  Diagram,  p.  211.) 

The  breathing  of  oxygen  for  disease  or  during  the 
process  of  training  should  not  be  lightly  undertaken 
without  the  advice  and  direct  supervision  of  a  medical 
man. 


AIR  199 

AiK  AXD  Ventilation. 

The  composition  of  air,  so  far  as  the  three  gases  areTheAtmo- 
concerned,  is  remarkably  uniform  all  over  the  face  of  ^itier 
the  globe,  even  in  the  open  spaces  of  large  cities.  This 
is  due  to  the  effects  of  winds,  to  the  rain  which  washes 
dust  and  organic  impurities  into  the  soil,  to  the  action 
of  the  oxygen  and  ozone  chemically  altering  many 
contained  matters,  and  to  the  power  of  green  plants, 
which  under  the  influence  of  sunlight  absorb  the  carbonic 
acid  in  excess,  fixing  the  carbon  and  setting  free  the 
oxygen,  although  the  process  is  reversed  at  night,  when 
the  plants  absorb  oxygen  by  respiration.  These 
influences,  together  with  the  diffusion  of  gases,  con- 
stitute the  science  of  ventilation.  In  badly  built  cities 
there  are  many  places  where  the  air  is  de-oxygenated 
and  de-vitalised,  the  oxygen  being  reduced  and  the 
carbonic  acid  increased  to  as  much  as  0'06  per  cent. 
This  is  quite  common  in  some  parts  of  London, 
Manchester,  Glasgow,  and  Birmingham.  Only  suitable 
building  and  town  planning  laws  can  prevent  this  and 
enable  city  air  to  approximate  to  the  consistency  of 
country  au\ 

The  air  is  vitiated  by  (1)  respiration,  (2)  combustion, 
(3)  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  (4)  trade 
processes,  (5)  poisons  from  damp  soil,  etc. 

We  have  already  seen  the  differences  between  Respira- 
inspired  air  and  expired  air.  Each  person  gives  off  0"6  *^°°' 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid  per  hour,  or  about  30 
oz.  per  day,  which  may  be  more  than  doubled  by 
exercise.  The  organic  matter  consists  of  vapour, 
epithelial  scales,  and  fatty  debris,  and  putrefies  so 
readily  that  it  may  be  smelled  in  a  room  when  the 
carbonic  acid  exceeds  0"06  per  cent. 


200      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

This  is  the  chief  element  which  is  inimical  to  health, 
and  can  hardly  be  got  rid  of  in  rooms  even  by  free 
ventilation,  unlike  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  equally 
diffused  throughout  the  apartment  and  quickly  passes 
into  the  external  air  when  it  gets  a  chance.  If  enough 
cubic  space  is  allowed  to  each  inhabitant  and  the  air  is 
sufficiently  often  removed  no  injury  to  health  can  then 
arise.  Analyses  have  been  made  of  air  in  schoolrooms 
with  as  much  as  0'723  per  cent,  carbonic  acid,  or  nearly 
twenty  times  as  much  as  normal,  and  as  the  organic 
matter  increases  'jjari  'passu  with  the  carbonic  acid  it 
must  have  been  very  foul. 

Many  diseases  are  produced  by  breathing  foul  air, 
among  them  rickets,  ansemia,  dyspepsia,  and  phthisis 
pulmonalis.  It  is  curious  that  the  tubercle  bacillus  is 
not  at  all  virulent  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
organic  impurity,  when  it  acquires  really  dangerous 
properties.  This  is  well  seen  in  back-to-back  houses, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  are  most  liable  to  consumption. 
Other  ailments  arising  from  foul  air  are  pulmonary 
diseases  and  diarrhoea,  bronchitis  and  pneumonia  (which 
may  become  epidemic),  and  all  forms  of  infectious 
disease.  Many  people  cannot  breathe  foul  air  without 
at  once  becoming  affected  with  nasal  catarrh  or  sore 
throat,  and  hospital  sore  throat,  due  to  long  confinement 
in  contaminated  air,  is  well  known.  It  is  now  known 
that  typhoid  fever  can  be  communicated  from  the  sick 
to  the  healthy  through  the  medium  of  the  air,  as  was 
abundantly  proved  in  the  South  African  campaign. 
Combus-  Ordinary  coal  burned  in  an  open  fireplace  gives  off 

three  times  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid  and  other  things, 
and  1  per  cent,  of  soot  and  tar.  One  lb.  of  coal 
consumes  240  feet  of  cubic  air.  One  cubic  foot  of 
coal  gas  produces  2  cubic  feet  carbonic  acid  and  half  a 


tion 


AIR  201 

grain  of  sulphurous  acid.  Three  hundred  grains  of  oil 
when  burned  produfee  1  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid.  All 
these  are  rapidly  diffused  in  the  air  excepting  soot. 
Sulphurous  acid  makes  rain  acid,  destroys  vegetation, 
and  disintegrates  mortar  and  the  softer  kinds  of  stones. 

Carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  even  to  the  extent  of 
2  per  cent,  if  unmixed  with  other  ingredients,  is  not 
productive  of  very  much  harm,  but  10  per  cent,  is 
fatal.  Carbonic  oxide  is  very  dangerous  even  in  very 
small  quantity.  Sulphurous  acid  and  soot  do  not 
produce  very  much  damage,  although  they  are  bad  for 
asthmatics  and  bronchitics.  The  slightest  escape  of 
coal  gas  is  liable  to  cause  ulcerated  and  relaxed  sore 
throats. 

A  room  heated  by  a  gas  fire  always  contains  more 
carbonic  acid  than  one  heated  by  a  coal  fire,  and  in  spite 
of  the  most  efficient  ventilation  a  room  always  contains 
more  carbonic  acid  than  the  external  air,  probably 
because  it  is  absorbed  by  the  walls  and  thus  repasses 
into  the  air  of  the  room. 

The  most  impure  air  in  a  room  is  at  the  ceiling,  and 
the  purest  at  the  floor. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  those  accustomed  to 
breathing  impure  air  suffer  much  less  seriously  from  a 
foul  atmosphere  than  those  vigorous  healthy  people  who 
are  accustomed  to  breathe  pure  air,  and  this  is  a  sufficient 
explanation  of  the  fact  that  slum-dwellers  accustomed 
to  overcrowding  from  their  birth  are  comparatively 
exempt  from  its  morbific  influence. 

Air  which  is  poisoned  from  sewers  or  other  accumula-  Pollutiot 
tions   of   refuse  is   not   dangerous  when   diluted,  but   if  p°™ 
inhaled  is  very  risky,  and  its  entrance  into  a  house  may 
cause    sore    throat,    anaemia,    headache,    and    lassitude. 
Summer    diarrhoea    in    children    is    due    directly    to 


202      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

breathing  air  and  drinking  milk  contaminated  with 
excretal  emanations.  It  is  worst  in  July  and  August, 
and  soon  after  the  temperature  of  the  earth  at  the 
depth  of  a  foot  from  the  surface  reaches  60°  F.  it 
begins.  The  best  sewered  cities  have  least  of  it.  City- 
authorities  are  to  be  blamed  for  putting  street  sweep- 
ings in  fields  near  the  city,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  spread 
by  the  wind.  The  air  over  marshes  contains  gases  and 
decaying  vegetable  matter. 


Trade  Peocesses. 

The  following  table,  extracted  from  the  Forty-Fifth 
Annual  Eeport  of  the  Eegistrar-General,  shows  the 
comparative  mortality  in  males  twenty-five  to  sixty-five 
years  of  age  in  certain  dust-inhaling  occupations  from 
phthisis  and  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 


Occupation, 

Phthisis. 

Diseases 

of  the 

Respiratory 

Organs. 

The  Two 
Combined. 

Coal  miner 
Carpenter,  Joiner 
Baker,  Confectioner. 
Plumber,  Painter,  Glazier 
Mason,  Builder,  Bricklayer 
Wool  manufacturer  . 
Cotton  manufacturer 
Quarryman,  Stone,  Slate  . 
Cutler      .... 
File-maker 

Earthenware  manufacturer 
Comish  miner  . 

126 
204 
212 
246 
252 
257 
272 
308 
371 
433 
473 
690 

202 
133 
186 
185 
201 
205 
271 
274 
389 
350 
645 
458 

328 
337 
398 
431 
433 
462 
543 
582 
760 
783 
1118 
1148 

All  males  (England  and  Wales) 
Fisherman        .... 

220 

108 

182 
90 

402 
198 

AIR 


203 


The  evil  results  of  dust-inhalation  are  seen  by  com- 
parison with  the  one  dust-free  occupation. 

AvEEAGE  MOETALITY  in  Sheffield  from  all  causes,  and 
from  phthisis,  and  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs 
during  the  three  years  1905,  1906,  and  1907  in 
certain  dusty  trades,  and  among  all  males  over 
twenty  years  of  age. 


Occupation. 

Males 
over  20 
Years 
of  Age. 

Average  Deatli-Rate  per  1000. 

AU 

Causes. 

Phthisis. 

Eespir- 

atory 

Diseases. 

Grinders  . 

Cutlers 

File  cutters 

Silver,  etc.,  workers 

All  males 

3,375 
2,500 
1,850 
2,380 
127,000 

34-2 
40-8 
32-1 
26-9 
16-2 

16-3 
7-2 
4-5 
5-5 
2-6 

5-7 
8-4 
5-4 
4-9 
2-1 

Most  houses  are  full  of  contrivances  for  catching  dust : 
cornices,  rough  wall-papers,  carpets  fitting  into  the 
corners,  curtains,  even  painted  walls  when  dry  give  off 
lead  dust,  and  wall-paper  frequently  contains  arsenic  and 
other  poisons. 

Ventilation. 

Ventilation  has  for  its  object  the  removal  of  foreign  The  Aim  of 
gases   and    suspended   matters    from   the  air  of    rooms.  ^^^*^'^" 
We   have   seen   how  the   forces   of   Nature   act    in   the 
outside  air,  but  as  applied  to  the  interior  of  buildings 
natural  ventilation  depends  on — 

(1)  Diffusion  of  gases,  which  is  inversely  as  the 
square  root  of  the  density,  and  can  take 
place  even  through  dry  bricks. 


tion. 


204      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

(2)  The  winds. 

(a)  Perflation,  as  through  open  windows. 
(&)  Aspiration,  as  from  chimneys  and  ventilat- 
ing shafts. 

(3)  The  difference  of  the  weight  of  air  of  unequal 

temperature  as  heated  air  expands.  An  average 
adult  expires  O'o  of  a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid 
per  hour,  and,  as  the  organic  content  increases 
pari  passu  with  the  carbonic  acid,  the  latter 
being  easily  measured  is  taken  as  the  index 
of  the  amount  of  the  impurity  in  air,  1,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  would  be  required  for 
each  individual  per  hour  to  keep  the  air  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  outside  air,  and  this  can 
only  be  got  out  of  doors.  A  close  disagree- 
able smell  is  only  felt  when  the  carbonic 
acid  reaches  0"6  per  1000  (0'06  per  cent.), 
and  beyond  1*3  per  1000  the  odour  of  the 
organic  impurity  is  too  strong  for  the  sense 
of  smell  to  estimate  it  accurately.  Up  to 
a  content  of  O'O 6  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid, 
air  can  be  breathed  with  impunity,  and  there- 
fore the  object  of  ventilation  is  to  provide 
enough  pure  air  to  prevent  the  carbonic  acid 
rising  above  O'O 6  per  1000.  The  per- 
missible limit  of  impurity  is  therefore  0*2  of 
a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid  per  1000. 
Now,  an  adult  in  an  absolutely  air-tight 
room,  measuring  10  feet  x  10  feet  x  10  feet, 
adds  0'6  cubic  foot  carbonic  acid  per  hour, 
and  this  added  to  what  is  already  contained 
in  the  air  is  equal  to  one  part  of  carbonic 
acid  per  1000,  or  0'4  part  carbonic  acid  per 
1000  beyond  the  limit. 


AIR  205 

If  the  chamber  has  a  cubic  content  of  3000  feet 
there  would  be  just  enough  ah'  to  last  for  the  hour 
without  becoming  too  impure,  and  hence  in  the  smaller 
room,  the  same  result  would  be  attained  by  the  renewal 
of  the  air  three  times  in  the  hour. 

Thus  an  adult  requires  3000  cubic  feet  of  fresh 
air  per  hour.  Factories  and  workshops  or  rooms  much 
contaminated  with  the  products  of  the  combustion  of 
gas  require  a  good  deal  more.  The  whole  problem 
of  ventilation  is  therefore  to  supply  each  adult  with 
3000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  each  hour  without  a 
draught,  and  naturally  for  this  purpose  the  larger  the 
amount  of  cubic  space  the  better.  In  the  colder  months 
of  the  year  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  the  result  without 
draught,  as  with  the  air  moving  at  the  rate  of  2|-  feet 
per  second — quite  as  much  as  can  be  tolerated  with 
comfort — 48  square  inches  of  inlet  are  required  for 
each  individual. 

Most  houses  depend  upon  windows  and  doors  for  the  Ways  and 
inlet  and  chimneys  for  the  outlet  As  the  expired  air  is  ^^^^^s. 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  80°  F.,  and  therefore  ascends, 
the  outlet  should  be  above  and  the  inlet  should  be  below 
the  feet,  as  the  entering  air  rapidly  diffuses  through  the 
room.  This  is  precisely  what  happens  in  the  winter 
when  the  fire  is  burning,  but  as  the  result  is  to  produce 
cold  feet  it  has  been  found  practically  necessary  to  have 
the  inlet  above  the  heads  of  the  inmates.  The  simpler 
the  device  to  attain  this  end  the  better.  The  very 
simplest  is  Keen's  method,  which  consists  in  nailing  a 
board  from  6  to  18  inches  high  across  the  lower  end  of 
the  bottom  sash  of  the  window  and  raising  the  lower  sash 
almost  to  the  full  extent  of  this  board.  There  are  thus 
two  passages  for  free  entrance  of  the  air  which  ascends 
and  falls    gently    into    the    apartment.     Hinckes-Bird's 


2o6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

system  is  on  the  same  plan.  Without  opening  the 
window  at  all,  holes  may  be  bored  in  the  lower  rail  of  the 
upper  sash  or  window  pane.  Ventilators  may  be  used, 
e.g.  the  louvre  and  Cooper's.  The  Sheringham  valve, 
Tobin's  tube,  Ellison's  conical  brick,  Neil  Arnott's  or 
Boyle's  valves  of  small  talc  plates,  are  all  examples  of 
well-known  methods  applicable  to  private  dwelling 
houses.  One  that  ought  to  be  specially  mentioned,  as  it 
ventilates  by  removing  the  products  of  combustion,  is 
M'Kinnell's.  After  all,  however,  the  handiest,  most 
applicable,  and  probably  the  only  available  method, 
especially  in  a  bedroom,  is  the  "  open  window." 
Night  Air.  Winter  and  summer,  the  bedroom  window  should 
never  be  closed  excepting  on  the  rarest  occasions  when 
the  atmosphere  is  polluted  by  a  thick  fog,  or  when  the 
wind  is  blowing  a  hurricane. 

Night  air  is  much  more  wholesome  than  day  air, 
because  it  is  much  purer,  containing  much  less  smoke 
and  soot  and  less  dust,  unless  in  those  unfortunate  city 
streets  where  misguided  corporation  officials  pollute  the 
atmosphere  by  their  revolving  sweeping  brush  machines. 
In  the  same  circumstances  a  closed  bedroom  window  is 
often  to  be  preferred  to  the  noises  of  steam  and  electric 
trams  and  other  city  traffic. 

Sleeping  in  cold  air  is  not  at  all  dangerous  if  one  be 
properly  clad,  although  it  may  be  so  if  insufficient  pro- 
tection be  not  ensured,  and  especially  if  cold  air  plays 
upon  the  sleeper's  head. 

It  is  dangerous  to  sleep  in  an  artificially  warmed 
bedroom,  where  the  temperature  will  seriously  diminish 
before  the  morning,  and  some  risk  is  also  run  in  leaving 
a  much  heated  sitting-room  for  a  much  colder  bedroom. 

The  temperature  of  a  bedroom  should  never  be  high — 
never  beyond   60°  F.,  and  much  less  than  this  is  more 


AIR  207 

satisfactory.  Excess  of  bed-clothes  and  warm  impure 
air,  especially  if  contaminated  with  the  products  of 
combustion  of  gas,  are  the  cause  of  disturbed  sleep  and 
lassitude  on  waking  in  the  morning,  quite  foreign  to  the 
individual  who  has  only  just  enough  bed-clothing  and  a 
room  full  of  coldish  tonic  bracing  fresh  air.  There  is  an 
idea  abroad  that  the  larger  the  bedroom  the  less  need 
there  is  for  fresh  air,  but  this  is  only  half  a  truth.  The 
open  window  is  quite  as  essential  to  such  a  bedroom  as 
a  smaller  one.  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that 
consumption  is  not  caught  by  exposure  to  cold,  the  truth 
being  that  cures  are  brought  about  in  climates  with  the 
coldest  but  also  the  driest  air.  Dust  and  badly  ventilated 
houses  are  the  real  cause  of  the  disease. 

Only  this  year  Dr.  Bernheim  of  Paris  has  demonstrated  Consump- 
that  the  death-rate  from  consumption  is  inversely  pro-  ^y^^^^ 
portional  to  the  number  of  windows  per  head.     In  one  Space, 
ward  of  the  city  of  Paris  where  the  number  of  windows 
per  head  is  4"2,  the  death-rate  from  tuberculosis  was  1"3 
per    1000    inhabitants,    whereas   in    another    ward    the 
number  of  the  windows  was  1'8  per  head,  the  death-rate 
was  8"2  per  1000.     Persons  living  in  the  lower  floors 
were  found  to  be  much  more  liable  to  tubercle  than  those 
in  the  upper  storeys,  because  they  were  much  less  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays  and  had  less  chance  of  fresh  air. 

All  sorts  of  modifications  of  the  open  bedroom  window 
have  been  devised.  Sleeping  with  the  bed  drawn  up  to 
the  open  window  and  the  head  in  the  open  air  or  without 
a  protection  is  an  excellent  plan  in  a  back-to-back  house 
where  natural  ventilation  is  almost  an  impossibility. 
Where  a  verandah  exists  the  bed  may  be  placed  there  or 
in  the  garden  under  a  canopy  or  in  a  revolving  shelter. 
Tents  are  not  necessarily  well  ventilated,  but  when  they 
are  they  afford  a  solution  of  the  problem.  A  more 
14 


2o8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

heroic  measure  is  sleeping  quite  naked  on  the  ground, 
and  the  undoubted  advantages  sometimes  derived  are  at- 
tributable to  the  open  air  rather  than  the  contact  with 
mother  earth. 

Other  diseases  besides  consumption  are  benefited  by 
the  open-air  cure,  notably  that  condition  of  body  usually 
called  "  nerves  "  by  the  public,  and  which  simply  means 
that  the  patient  is  poisoned  by  his  own  secretions  and 
accumulations  of  toxic  waste  matter.  Fevers  of  all  kinds 
are  still  treated  in  hospitals,  but  it  has  been  amply 
demonstrated  that  when  no  indoor  accommodation  could 
be  had,  the  cases  treated  in  the  open  air  had  a  larger 
percentage  of  recoveries. 

A  simple  test  for  excess  of  carbonic  acid  in  air  is  that 
suggested  by  Dr.  Angus  Smith.  To  a  sample  of  the  air 
in  a  20-oz.  bottle  add  |  oz.  of  lime  water,  and  on 
shaking  it  up  it  will  become  turbid  if  the  carbonic  acid 
is  excessive. 

The  Effect  of  Climate. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  body  can  accommodate 
itself  to  all  forms  of  extreme  conditions,  and  we  will  now 
glance  briefly  at  the  changes  brought  about. 

In  hot  climates  there  is  no  need  to  manufacture  heat, 
therefore  there  is  less  combustion  in  the  tissues  or 
metabolism  as  it  is  called,  the  excreta  are  lessened,  less 
food  is  eaten,  and  digestion  and  assimilation  are  at  a  low 
ebb.  The  oxygenation  of  the  blood  is  diminished  because 
the  number  of  respirations  is  decreased,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  oxygen  is  less  in  warm  than  in  cold  air.  The 
result  is  very  enervating,  the  skin  is  particularly  active, 
perspiration  much  increased,  and  by  evaporation  this  cools 
the  blood  and  thus  the  temperature  is  regulated.     Yet 


AIR  209 

tropical  climates  are  only  unhealthy  to  Europeans  because 
of  the  defective  sanitation,  the  water  and  air  being 
polluted  by  putrefying  substances. 

In  cold  climates  all  this  is  reversed.  To  maintain  the 
heat  of  the  body  an  abundance  of  food,  especially  fatty 
and  starchy  substances,  must  be  swallowed ;  there  is 
increased  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  and  the  carbonic  acid 
excretion  is  increased.  The  skin  acts  feebly,  and  thus 
less  heat  is  lost  by  evaporation ;  a  bracing  effect  is 
produced,  and  tremendous  energy  of  body  and  mind  is 
possible. 

In  humid  climates  there  is  little  evaporation  from  the 
skin  and  lungs,  and,  as  this  prevents  the  loss  of  heat, 
when  the  air  is  hot  it  is  difficult  to  keep  cool.  When,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  air  is  cold  the  lack  of  evaporation 
causes  a  retention  of  the  waste  products,  and  rheumatism 
is  easily  originated.  In  dry  climates  there  is  great 
evaporation  from  the  skin  and  lungs,  and  chest  ailments 
are  aggravated,  the  cough  especially  becoming  much  more 
irritating.  A  warm,  equable,  fairly  moist  climate  is  the 
one  best  suited  for  such  ailments.  If  there  is  much  wind 
in  a  dry  cold  climate  the  loss  of  heat  and  watery  vapour 
is  much  increased,  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  chapped, 
the  lungs  irritated,  and  especially  in  an  east  wind  the 
functions  of  the  liver  are  disorganised. 

In  mountain  climates  there  is  a  greater  movement  of  Mountain 
the  air,  which  is  less  humid  and  free  from  dust  and  other  ^"^  ^^^ 
suspended  particles  ;  the  atmosphere  contains  more  ozone, 
and  there  is  increased  sunlight  and  a  lower  temperature. 
The  soil  is  rapidly  heated  by  the  sun,  and  thus  the  days 
are  warm  but  the  evenings  become  suddenly  cool.  As 
the  pressure  is  diminished  with  increase  of  elevation 
there  is  less  oxygen  in  the  air,  but  the  number  of  respira- 
tions is  increased,  and  hence  there  is  greater  oxygenation 


2IO      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

of  the  blood,  the  chest  capacity  becomes  greater,  the 
metabolic  activity  of  the  body  is  increased,  and  the 
digestion  is  improved.  For  this  reason  such  climates  are 
especially  suitable  for  cases  of  phthisis  pulmonalis  in  the 
early  stages  without  bronchitis  or  much  pulmonary 
congestion,  which  a  cold  dry  air  would  only  aggravate. 
If  a  spot  be  selected  well  sheltered  from  cold  winds  such 
cases  invariably  do  well.  Mountain  climates  close  to  the 
sea  are  very  damp,  and  more  rain  falls  because  of  the 
humid  sea  air  striking  the  colder  mountain  side  and 
depositing  its  moisture. 

Seaside  climates  are  much  more  equable,  and  the  air  is 
moist,  free  from  germs,  and  full  of  ozone.  Water  heats 
slowly  and  parts  slowly  with  its  heat.  Land  heats 
rapidly  and  radiates  its  heat  as  quickly.  Hence  in 
winter  the  sea  gives  off  its  heat,  and  raises  the  tempera- 
ture, and  in  summer  the  land  gives  of!"  its  heat,  the  air 
over  it  rises  quickly,  and  during  the  day  a  cool  breeze 
comes  from  the  sea.  During  the  night  the  air  is  much 
colder  over  the  land  and  warmer  over  the  sea,  hence  the 
land  breeze  sets  out  to  sea.  It  is  always  cool  on  the  sea- 
shore in  the  summer  time,  when  it  is  hot  and  close  inland. 

Ocean  climates  are  most  valuable  for  lung  diseases, 
such  as  bronchitis,  emphysema,  phthisis  pulmonalis  in  its 
congestive  forms,  because  in  these  a  pure  air,  free  from 
dust,  yet  moist  and  equable  is  required.  Sea  voyages 
are  by  no  means  always  beneficial  to  consumptives,  chiefly 
because  of  the  limited  accommodation  on  board  ship. 

It  is  notable  that  cool  summers  and  mild  winters  are 
much  more  healthy  than  hot  summers  and  cold  winters. 
It  is  the  extremes  that  tell.  An  equable  climate  is 
much  less  trying. 

In  selecting  a  holiday  resort  the  above  principles 
should  be  applied,  and  the  following  considerations  should 


Fig.  1.     (See  page  211.) 


Fig.  2.     (See  page  211. 


Breathing  Exercise  (3). 
(Page  198.)  From  The 
Dietetic  and  Hygienic  Gazette, 
Ne^v  Yoi'k. 


Fig.  3.  (See  page  211  — Devices 
for  sleeping  in  the  open  air  and 
yet  retaining  the  shelter  of  the 
house.  Adapted  from  Daily 
Blail. 


AIR  211 

be  taken  into  account.  The  temperament  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  individual  should  be  studied.  Thus  the 
nervous  and  gouty  should  select  an  inland  fairly  high 
bracing  place.  If  one's  place  of  residence  be  situated  in 
a  cool  bracing  district  it  is  rarely  advisable  to  select  a 
less  bracing  resort.  In  the  winter  time  as  a  rule  the 
west  coast  of  this  country  should  be  preferred,  and  in  the 
summer  time  the  east  coast.  The  exposure  of  a  health 
resort  is  very  important ;  places  within  a  few  miles  of 
each  other  on  the  seacoast  being  bracing  or  relaxing 
according  as  they  face  a  northerly  or  southerly  direction. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  places  in  the  north  of  this 
country  are  not  by  any  means  always  bracing.  There  is 
some  justification  for  the  statement  that  a  change  of  air 
is  simply  tantamount  to  a  change  of  soil. 

Devices  for  Sleeping  in  the  Open  Am  and  yet 
Eetaining  the  Shelter  of  the  House. 

(1)  Bed  parallel  with  the  window.  After  sleeper 
retires  to  bed  an  awning  is  lowered ;  the  window  is 
then  raised.     There  is  a  celluloid  window  in  the  awning. 

(2)  Bed  endways  to  the  window,  the  head  and 
shoulders  being  outside,  an  external  canopj^  giving  them 
protection. 

(3)  Bed  parallel  with  the  window,  a  tent-like  awning 
inside  over  the  head  and  outside  to  protect  from  the 
weather  (only  used  when  raining). 

Practical  Summary. 

1.  As  far  as  possible  live  in  the  open  air.  Where 
this  is  impossible  it  is  wise  to  make  a  rule  to  spend  at 
least  two  hours  in  the  fresh  air  each  day. 


212      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

2.  Always  breathe  through  the  nose  night  as  well  as 
day.  Mouth  breathing  is  not  only  deforming,  but  danger- 
ous to  health. 

3.  Breathing  through  the  nose  filters,  moistens,  and 
warms  the  air  in  a  much  more  effective  manner  than 
when  practised  through  the  mouth. 

4.  Practise  sensible  deep  breathing,  not  only  as  an 
exercise  but  as  a  habit. 

5.  Phthisis  pulmonalis,  or  consumption  of  the  lungs, 
is  one  of  the  most  curable  of  maladies  when  taken  in 
time.  The  surest  prevention  of  this  disease  is  the 
practice  of  deep  breathing. 

6.  Voluntary  deep  breathing  is  sometimes  fatiguing 
and  irksome.  In  such  a  contingency  indulge  in 
climbing,  swimming,  or  other  exercise  which  encourages 
natural  deep  breathing. 

7.  Have  at  least  1000  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each 
inmate  of  a  house  or  bedroom,  i.e.  a  room  space  of 
10x10x10  feet  for  each  individual. 

8.  The  really  dangerous  ingredient  of  foul  air  is  the 
organic  material,  which  provides  food  for  germs.  This 
can  only  be  estimated  by  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
contained  in  the  air,  and  this  is  therefore  called  the 
index  of  impurity  of  the  air. 

9.  The  most  impure  air  in  a  room  is  at  the  ceiling ; 
the  purest  at  the  floor.  As  this  obtains  even  in  a 
burning  building,  it  is  wise  in  such  circumstances  to  keep 
the  head  near  the  floor  in  endeavouring  to  effect  an  exit. 

10.  The  secret  of  good  ventilation  is  to  renew  the  air 
in  a  room  at  least  three  times  each  hour  night  and  day 
without  creating  a  draught. 

11.  The  bedroom  window  must  be  open  night  and  day, 
but  caution  must  be  exercised  during  foggy  weather. 

12.  Take    every    opportunity    of    getting    into    the 


AIR  213 

country    by    week  -  end    trips     or    Saturday    afternoon 
walks. 

13.  In  selecting  a  holiday  resort,  careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  question  of  climate.  Speaking 
generally,  sea  air  is  relaxing  and  mountain  air  bracing, 
but  in  this  country  the  East  Coast  health  resorts  are 
bracing  in  the  summer,  whereas  the  West  Coast  resorts 
when  bracing  are  only  so  in  the  winter. 


CHAPTEE    VII. 

EXEECISE. 

LAW  VI. — " Regular  exercise  should  be  taken  every 
day,  both  for  recreation  and  development." 

THE  necessity  for  daily  exercise  is  now  tacitly 
admitted  by  every  intelligent  man.  The  under- 
lying principle  involved  is  simply  that  of  properly  using 
every  part  of  the  body.  Lack  of  use  means  decay, 
disease,  death.  The  sure  road  to  Hfe  and  health  is  that 
which  leads  along  the  paths  of  physical  rectitude. 
Elasticity  is  the  keynote  to  the  health  of  every  vital 
structure,  and  this  can  only  be  secured  by  regular 
exercise. 

The  physical  nature  will  thrive  in  itself  and  overcome 
its  insidious  enemies  according  to  the  pains  and  intelli- 
gence with  which  it  is  trained  and  educated  for  the 
performance  of  those  ends.  The  mind  is  not  capable  of 
discharging  its  functions  to  full  advantage  without  the 
most  careful  preparation  for  its  work,  and  neither  is  the 
body.  The  physical  being  has  to  supply  the  basis  of 
energy  for  the  intellect  and  the  emotions,  as  well  as  to 
play  its  own  part  in  the  economy  of  existence.  The 
writer  who  argued  the  necessity  for  spiritual  or  intel- 
lectual culture  would  be  dismissed  as  preaching  truisms. 
None  deny  that  it  is  better  to  educate  the  mind  and  the 


EXERCISE  215 

moral  nature  than  to  let  them  develop  in  sprawling 
futility  and  subject  them  to  the  bitter  correction  of 
experience.  But  the  soundness  of  the  same  plea  for  the 
physical  side  of  human  nature  still  requires  to  be  realised. 
It  is  admitted  in  theory,  but  it  is  not  applied  with  con- 
viction to  the  upbringing  of  the  race.  The  production 
of  health  has  not  been  made  an  object  of  national  policy 
with  the  same  deliberation  as  the  evolution  of  intelligence, 
although,  now  that  our  Medical  Inspectors  of  Schools 
have  got  seriously  to  work,  it  is  to  be  hoped  a  revolution 
will  take  place  in  this  connection. 

Much  philanthropy  is  expended  in  the  cure  of  disease, 
but  scarcely  any  upon  its  prevention,  except  perhaps  in 
connection  with  the  spread  of  infectious  ailments  and 
the  enforcement  of  elementary  sanitation.  The  com- 
munity recognises  the  common  danger  from  the  malignity 
of  epidemic  diseases ;  what  it  must  be  made  to  realise  is 
the  common  loss  involved  in  the  imperfect  development 
of  its  individuals.  It  has  a  no  less  substantial  interest 
in  fostering  physical  efficiency  than  in  averting  external 
menace, — that  is  to  say,  if  the  attainment  of  the  maxi- 
mum of  collective  happiness,  longevity,  and  working 
power  be  admitted  as  an  object  of  public  policy. 
Upon  that  basis  we  need  not  hesitate  to  claim  for 
physical  culture  a  place  amongst  our  national  responsi- 
bilities, and  as  that  place  comes  to  be  more  frankly 
conceded  the  medical  oversight  now  officially  associated 
with  education  must  undergo  many  and  far-reaching 
developments. 

All  medical  experience  indicates  that  as  a  nation  our  Are 
physical  culture  is  heavily  in  arrears.      It  is  true  that  an  T!j,Y^+- 
almost  universal  worship  of   sport  is  evidenced  in   the  People  ? 
popularity  of  outdoor  games,  and  by  the  crowds,  many 
thousands  in  number,  who  dwell  with  distended  eyes  and 


2i6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

bated  breath  upon  the  buffeted  fortunes  of  a  football. 
But,  scrutinised  closely,  the  football  mania  scarcely  does 
more  for  the  British  Nation  than  the  gladiatorial 
exhibitions  of  ancient  Kome  accomplished  for  their  en- 
raptured votaries.  Scarcely  1  per  cent,  of  the  average 
football  crowd  actually  participate  themselves  in  any  form 
of  exercise  from  one  week's  end  to  another. 

Yet  we  pose  to  ourselves  and  to  the  world  as  an 
athletic  nation.  Doubtless  we  have  inherited  from  our 
ancestors  a  love  for  open-air  life,  and  those  privileged 
to  be  brought  up  in  the  country  have  indulged  in  out- 
door sports,  but  the  city  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  after 
all  are  recruited  from  the  country,  are  unable  to  find 
opportunities  to  gratify  their  sporting  instincts,  and 
hence  their  weekly  peregrinations  to  see  the  old  games 
and  the  mental  delusion  that  watching  is  the  next  best 
thing  to  participation.  Were  this  self-deception  innocent, 
little  could  be  said,  but  in  practice  it  leads  too  many  to 
abandon  all  forms  of  actual  exercise,  and  directs  their 
attention  from  the  true  goal  of  physical  culture. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  any  general  disparagement 
is  to  be  thrown  upon  the  playing  of  organised  games,  or 
upon  their  educative  value  to  the  participants.  They 
afford  a  training  in  respect  of  character,  nerve,  conduct 
and  judgment,  which  is  hardly  to  be  overestimated,  and 
they  are  responsible  for  much  of  what  our  nation  has 
achieved  in  the  world.  But  that  stands  apart  from  the 
special  question  of  physical  development,  which  is  here 
being  considered,  and  in  that  regard  it  may  be  justly 
observed  (1)  that  games  by  themselves  do  not  fulfil  all 
that  is  necessary  in  the  way  of  physical  culture,  and  (2) 
that  on  the  physical  side  the  pursuit  of  athletic  pro- 
ficiency is  apt  to  foster  an  erroneous  ideal  of  bodily 
development  and  perfection. 


EXERCISE  217 

The  object  of  physical  culture  is  not  to  people  the 
world  with  Sandows  or  Eanjitsinhjis,  any  more  than  the 
object  of  intellectual  culture  is  to  fill  it  with  Herbert 
Spencers.  The  object  of  each  is  to  develop  the  man 
upon  its  own  proper  lines  to  his  limit  of  capacity.  Each 
individual  is  created  with  a  certain  capacity  for  work, 
and  beyond  this  it  is  not  possible  for  him  to  extend  his 
powers  without  danger.  We  have  the  rapid  worker  and 
the  slow  one,  the  strong  man  and  the  weak,  the  genius 
and  the  mediocrity.  To  apply  this  principle  of  variation 
upon  the  physical  side,  we  realise  that  it  is  only  some 
who  can  afford  to  carry  their  physical  culture  to  an 
athletic  pitch.  The  true  aim  always  must  be  to  make 
the  man  not  necessarily  strong  but  healthy — a  whole 
man.  It  may  involve  in  making  him  a  strong  man,  but 
only  in  virtue  of  his  exceptional  endowments. 

Physical  culture  is  exercise,  but  exercise  with  a 
purpose  and  a  system  to  guide  it,  and  its  object  is  to 
develop  each  power  and  organ  of  the  body  to  its  full 
physiological  degree  of  fitness.  To  be  positively  useful, 
a  system  of  physical  culture  must  be  comprehensive, 
succinct,  and  capable  of  easy  application.  The  ordinary 
forms  of  exercise  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  such  as 
football  and  cricket,  come  within  the  category  of  recrea- 
tion, which  is  by  no  means  the  same  thing  as  exercise 
for  physical  culture.  The  term  "  recreation "  may  be 
taken  to  define  such  exercises  and  sports  as  do  not 
require  any  close  application  of  the  mind,  and  indeed 
they  are  usually  undertaken  more  as  a  relief  to  the  mind 
than  as  a  means  of  developing  the  body. 

Properly  to  develop  the  physical  side  of  man  in  his 
growing  condition,  the  most  carefully  selected  system  of 
exercises  should  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  each  indi- 
vidual, and  to  retain  that  equable  development  in  after 


2i8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

life  when  full  growth  has  been  attained,  something  more 
than  mere  recreative  exercise  is  a  necessity.  Most  forms 
of  occupation  tend  to  render  a  man  asymmetrical,  to 
develop  some  muscles  at  the  expense  of  others,  and  by 
this  means  to  put  a  strain  on  the  bony  framework  which 
has  a  tendency  to  interfere  with  the  proper  working  of 
the  internal  organs.  For  this  reason,  again,  physical 
education  should  be  attended  to  in  some  degree  aU 
through  life. 

The  question  has  often  been  asked,  whether  we  really 
inherit  symmetrical,  well  formed,  and  shapely  bodies  ? 
It  is  natural  to  put  a  somewhat  generous  estimate  upon 
our  own  physique  and  that  of  our  progeny.  But  what 
do  the  cold  insusceptible  results  of  study  and  research 
tell  us  ? 

In  the  ten  years,  1871-1880,  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  children  in  every  thousand  died  in  the  first  year 
of  life,  and  before  another  four  years  had  passed  no  less 
than  another  hundred  and  sixty-three  of  the  thousand 
had  died.  In  other  words,  from  three  to  four  out  of 
every  ten  children  die  before  theu'  fifth  birthday, — for 
with  all  our  advances  in  the  last  twenty,  later  statistics 
show  that  we  have  secured  no  appreciable  diminution  in 
child  mortality,  although  intelligent  reformers  have  in 
isolated  cases  almost  halved  this  death-rate  by  the 
diffusion  of  hygienic  knowledge. 

Of  the  six  hundred  and  seventy-four  left  from  the 
original  thousand,  how  many  are  endowed  with  perfect 
physical  frames  ?  Those  of  us  who  are  dealing  with 
disease  and  sickness  every  day  of  our  lives  know  what 
the  answer  would  be.  "We  find  many  hopelessly  de- 
formed, many  tainted  already  with  disease  from  their 
earliest  infancy,  many  afflicted  with  weak  nervous 
systems,  chests,  or  hearts,  and  defective  stomachs.     In 


EXERCISE  219 

many  classes  of  society  it  is  hardly  possible  to  find  one 
typically  healthy  and  robust  child. 

But  having  found  him,  if  we  follow  him  through  his 
educational  career  we  shall  discover  that  hindrances  of 
all  conceivable  kinds  are  thrown  in  his  pathway  to 
prevent  the  attainment  of  physiological  perfection. 
Even  granted  that  school  children  are  encouraged  to 
play  many  forms  of  excellent  games  in  more  or  less 
hygienic  surroundings,  none  of  these  nor  even  all  com- 
bined have  the  deliberate  and  guided  purpose  of  building 
up  the  pupil  for  the  future,  nor  have  they  even  the 
advantage  that  they  can  be  carried  on  to  any  extent  in 
after  life.  It  is  the  exception  at  the  close  of  any 
curriculum  open  to  the  masses  of  the  people  to  find  an 
average  endowment  of  healthy,  well-developed  bodies. 
Most  of  them  are  round-shouldered  and  have  one 
shoulder  higher  than  the  other,  or  are  hollow-chested. 
A  large  proportion  suffer  from  dyspepsia,  and  carry  it 
with  them  through  life.  Much  better  to  have  had 
strong  digestions  and  strong  bodies,  even  at  some  sacri- 
fice of  intellectual  progress.  This  is  the  judgment  which 
a  believer  in  physical  culture  must  pass  on  their  prepara- 
tion for  life. 

Nor  does  the  work  of  everyday  existence  render  any 
better  service  to  the  stability  of  the  vital  parts  and 
functions  ?  Even  such  a  typically  healthful  occupation 
as  the  farmer's  tends  to  make  his  body  irregularly 
developed.  Mowing  bends  his  back,  shovelling  still 
more  so ;  ploughing  is  better,  but  develops  an  awkward 
clumsy  gait.  Farm  work  never  makes  a  man  fleet  of 
foot.  Most  of  the  day  some  particular  muscles  are  used 
and  get  strong,  others  are  never  used  and  must  therefore 
remain  weak.  Muscles  seldom  used  must  of  necessity 
get  weak.     You  have  only  to  go  into  the  agricultural 


220      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

districts  of  England  to  see  the  clumsiest  and  most 
deformed  of  old  men,  deformed  by  their  daily  labour — 
a  perversion  which  might  easily  have  been  stayed  had  a 
few  simple  exercises  been  performed  each  day  with 
a  healthy  ideal  of  the  body  before  them,  and  with  a 
view  to  the  least  harmful  accommodation  of  the  frame 
to  the  various  demands  of  labour. 

If  farm  labour  tends  to  produce  a  badly  or  unequally 
developed  man,  with  all  the  ensuing  penalties  of  pains 
in  the  over  developed  "  muscle-bound  "  parts — so-called 
rheumatism — what  must  we  expect  of  the  business  man, 
working  in  the  devitalised  air  of  a  city  office  and  hardly 
ever  using  his  muscles  ?  The  broken-down  wrecks  who 
visit  the  doctors'  consulting-rooms,  with  tales  of  jaded 
nerves  and  faces  full  of  woe  and  apprehension,  bear 
witness,  not  so  much  to  over-work  as  to  a  wrong  appor- 
tioning of  time  and  energy, — too  much  being  given  to  the 
claims  of  business  and  too  little  to  the  necessities  of 
exercise  and  fresh  air. 
Recruiting  ISTor  is  the  "  working  man "  any  better.  In  all  the 
tions.^"  heavier  kinds  of  skilled  labour  one  side  (the  right)  is 
developed  at  the  expense  of  the  left,  the  back  more 
than  the  front  of  the  chest,  and  the  legs  hardly  at  all. 
Plumbers  and  carpenters,  coopers  and  smiths,  stonemasons 
and  blacksmiths  not  only  work  with  one  side  more  than 
the  other,  but  their  tools  are  usually  right-handed,  so 
that  they  could  not  well  use  them  with  the  left  hand  if 
they  tried  to  do  so. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  Dr.  Charles  Eoberts  found  that 
out  of  7800  boys  and  men  between  ten  and  thirty  years 
of  age  who  were  children  of  artisans,  and  out  of  7800  who 
were  children  of  the  most  favoured  class  in  England — 
boys  at  the  great  schools,  military  and  naval  cadets, 
university    and    medical    students  —  the    sons    of     the 


EXERCISE  221 

mechanics,  instead  of  being  as  tall  as  the  other  boys  and 
young  men,  actually  averaged  3^  inches  shorter.  As  to 
weight,  it  was  found  that,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  well-to-do 
English  youths  have  a  mean  weight  of  18  lb.  greater 
than  that  of  the  handicraftsmen  living  in  the  large 
towns.  It  has  also  been  discovered  that  the  difference 
between  the  physical  status  of  the  best  Scottish  agri- 
cultural population  and  that  of  the  manufacturing 
population  of  Manchester  and  Bristol  is  an  average  of 
5  inches  in  height  and  31  lb.  in  weight  in  favour  of 
the  former — a  pretty  striking  tribute  to  the  fact  that 
using  only  a  few  muscles  will  make  neither  large  nor 
strong  men. 

Small  wonder  now  at  the  revelation  made  by  the 
inspection  of  men  volunteering  for  service  at  the  Cape. 
More  than  half  of  even  the  pick  of  the  volunteers  were 
rejected — men  w?io  could  afford  the  best  of  food  and 
exercise,  but  whose  work  had  so  unequally  developed 
them  that  they  could  not  pass  the  simple  test  of  the 
War  Office.  Nor  does  it  astonish  one  that  to  make  up 
the  proper  number  of  men  under  the  scheme  for  the 
increase  of  the  Army  the  height  test  had  to  be  reduced 
or  the  men  would  not  have  been  forthcoming.  It  seems 
appalling  to  read  that  last  year,  out  of  the  956  men  who 
offered  themselves  as  recruits  in  Dundee,  680  were 
rejected  as  physically  unfit;  or  that  of  1493  in  New- 
castle 1046  were  refused,  or  that  1821  were  rejected 
of  2523  in  Manchester  who  desired  to  enter  the  Army. 

These  are  the  fathers  of  the  children  of  whom  so 
large  a  proportion  die  before  attaining  the  age  of  five. 
A  strong  child  can  rarely  be  born  from  a  weakly  father, 
and  if  the  latter  will  not  develop  himself,  his  children 
are  likely  to  suffer.  The  fact  is,  that  most  of  us  get 
from  our  parents  a  one-sided  and  partial  development, 


222      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

and,  like  our  parents,  are  content  to  leave  things  as 
they  are.  If  our  daily  work  does  not  remedy  but 
increase  the  defect,  few  of  us  seem  to  have  the  intelli- 
gence to  attempt  to  correct  it. 

To  look  at  the  matter  more  concretely  and  technically, 
we  find  that  the  human  body  is  a  machine  of  216 
bones,  245  muscles,  and  numberless  joints  with  which  to 
work  the  one  on  the  other.  A  very  short  description 
of  these  three  branches  of  what  may  be  called  the 
locomotor  apparatus  will  increase  our  interest  in  the 
matter,  and  enable  the  propositions  about  to  be  set  forth 
to  be  followed  more  clearly. 

Although  bones  differ  markedly  in  their  appearance 
and  shape,  their  composition  is  practically  identical,  as 
can  be  proved  by  two  simple  experiments. 

(1)  Fill  a  flat  vessel  with  strong  vinegar  or  acetic 
acid  and  lay  a  bone  therein.  Almost  immediately  some 
bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  will  be  sure  to  escape,  and 
after  a  variable  time  the  bone  will  have  lost  its  hardness 
and  will  become  quite  soft  and  pliable.  In  other  words, 
it  has  lost  all  its  earthy  or  mineral  matter  by  solution 
in  the  acid,  and  only  the  animal  or  gelatinous  part  has 
been  left. 

(2)  Burn  a  piece  of  bone  to  a  white  heat  in  a  fire 
and  allow  it  to  cool  carefully.  It  will  then  be  found  to 
be  so  brittle  that  it  is  liable  to  crumble  away,  and  it 
looks  indeed  like  a  piece  of  chalk  full  of  minute  holes. 
This  white  mass  is  the  mineral  matter  of  the  bone,  and 
the  little  holes  are  the  cavities  which  were  filled  with 
the  animal  matter  or  gelatine.  It  consists  chiefly  of 
phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  and  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  these  elements  are  almost  quite  absent  in  the  bone 
of  an  infant,  although  they  gradually  increase  with  each 
month  of  the  child's  life.     Hence  the  bones  in  early  life 


EXERCISE  223 

are  apt  to  bend,  and  should  anything  interfere  with  the 
deposit  of  the  mineral  matter  the  bending  may  be  quite 
serious,  as  we  notice  in  the  disease  called  rickets. 

We  are  only  now  beginning  to  realise  the  significance 
of  this  condition.  From  the  earliest  times  it  used  to  be 
attributed  to  a  deficiency  of  lime  in  the  water  or  food, 
and  hence  water-supplies  characterised  by  extreme  soft- 
ness, such  as  those  of  Glasgow  and  Dublin,  were  looked 
upon  with  grave  suspicion.  From  observation  in  children 
and  experiments  on  young  animals  it  is  now  known, 
however,  that  lack  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  are  the  two 
main  factors  in  the  incidence  of  this  malady,  and  that 
when  these  are  supplied  in  abundance  there  is  little  fear 
of  its  appearance.  A  pint  of  good  fresh  milk  contains 
more  lime  than  gallons  of  hard  water. 

Collectively  the  bones  are    known    as    the    skeleton.  The  Uses 
which  has  three  functions  to  perform  : —  Skekton 

(1)  To  serve  as  a  support,  especially  in  the  form 

of  the  vertebral  column,  for  the  erect  posture. 

(2)  To  serve  as  a  protection  for  delicate  internal 

organs,  such  as  the  brain. 

(3)  To  furnish  a  series  of  levers,  as  in  the  limbs, 

for  the  muscles  to  work  on. 

The  skull  consists  of  twenty-two  bones,  eight  in  the 
cranium  and  fourteen  in  the  face,  mostly  dovetailed 
together  by  immovable  jointings  called  sutures. 

The  vertebral  column  is  made  up  of  a  number  of 
separate  bones  called  vertebrae,  and  is  so  constructed  as 
to  combine  strength,  mobility,  and  elasticity.  There  are 
thirty-three  of  these  vertebrse  in  early  life,  but  as  age 
increases  the  lower  nine  join  so  as  to  form  two  bones, 
the  sacrum  and  the  coccyx  or  tail  bone.  Of  the  other 
twenty-four,  seven  in  the  neck  are  called  the  cervical ; 
twelve  in  the  back,  the  dorsal ;  and  five  in  the  loins,  the 
15 


224      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

lumbar.  Each  member  of  these  three  series  has 
characters  which  enable  it  to  be  referred  to  its  own 
particular  set,  but  all  have  in  common  (1)  a  solid  front 
part  or  body ;  (2)  an  arch  springing  from  the  body ;  (3) 
one  spinous  process,  two  transverse  processes,  and  certain 
articular  processes ;  (4)  notches  for  the  passage  of  the 
spinal  nerves  between  the  vertebrae.  When  in  position 
the  bodies  of  the  different  vertebrae  are  superimposed 
one  upon  the  other,  separated  by  discs  of  cartilage  or 
gristle,  to  form  a  column  of  support,  whilst  the  arches 
make  a  continuous  canal  to  lodge  the  spinal  cord  and 
protect  it,  and  the  notches  afford  an  exit  for  the  spinal 
nerves.  Besides  the  cartilaginous  discs  between  the 
vertebrae  there  are  many  ligaments,  joints,  and  muscles, 
and  from  the  twelve  dorsal  notches  pass  off  on  each 
side  correspondiag  ribs.  This  arrangement  not  only 
strengthens  the  spine,  but  in  combination  with  the 
various  curves  which  it  follows  forms  a  perfect  mechanism 
for  lessening  jars  and  shocks. 
The  Bent  When  viewed  from  the  side  the  spinal  column  presents 
Backbone.  |q^j,  curves  alternately  directed  forwards  and  backwards, 
— forwards  in  the  cervical  and  lumbar,  and  backwards 
in  the  dorsal  and  sacral  regions.  On  the  retention  of 
these  curves  depends  the  stability  of  the  whole  spinal 
column  and  in  a  marked  degree  the  health  of  the  body, 
because  it  is  on  the  alignment  of  the  vertebral  framework 
that  the  correct  position  of  the  internal  organs  and  their 
accurate  functioning  depends. 

At  birth  the  spinal  column  is  shaped  like  the  letter  0 
with  the  convexity  posterior,  and  it  owes  its  cervical  curve 
forwards  to  the  attitude  adopted  by  the  mother  nursing 
her  child,  the  neck  usually  reposing  on  or  hanging  back 
over  her  left  arm.  The  first  efforts  of  walking  determine 
the   forward   lumbar    curve,   and    these   two   deflections 


EXERCISE  225 

enable  the  internal  organs  to  be  packed  more  concisely  and 
with  less  waste  of  space  in  the  abdominal  and  thoracic 
cavities,  and  thus  most  efficiently  to  perform  their 
functions.  We  shall  see  later  how  a  disturbance  of  the 
shape  of  the  vertebral  column  is  responsible  for  much 
discomfort  to  its  unfortunate  victim,  besides  being  the 
occasion  of  active  disease. 

The  other  portions  of  the  skeleton  of  special  interest 
to  us  are  the  ribs  and  the  shoulder  girdle.  With 
regard  to  the  former,  every  one  knows  that  there  are 
twelve  on  each  side,  attached  behind  to  the  dorsal 
vertebree.  The  upper  seven,  called  "  true "  ribs,  are 
attached  in  front  to  the  breast-bone,  the  connecting 
medium  being  cartilaginous.  The  8  th,  9  th,  and  10  th 
are  fixed  in  front  to  the  lower  border  of  the  7  th, 
whilst  the  11th  and  12th  are  free  in  front,  and  hence 
called  "  floating."  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  ribs 
which  join  the  breast-bone  have  their  forward  ends 
lower  than  the  rear,  so  that  when  they  are  raised  in  the 
act  of  breathing  they  push  forward  the  breast-bone  and 
increase  their  own  curvature,  thus  increasing  the  depth 
and  breadth  of  the  chest. 

There  are  thirty-two  bones  in  the  upper  limb,  which, 
being  formed  for  prehensile  purposes,  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  support  of  the  body,  its  sole  bony  attachment 
being  by  means  of  the  collar-bone  to  the  breast-bone. 
The  practical  point  in  this  connection  will  be  noted 
when  we  refer  to  round  shoulders. 

Of  the  thirty  bones  in  the  lower  limb,  special 
attention  will  be  directed  later  to  the  pelvis — made 
up  of  the  two  composite  hip-bones,  and  to  the  arch  of 
the  foot,  which  is  so  constructed  that,  in  walking, 
the  external  border  of  the  foot  alone  touches  the 
ground. 


226      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

A  joint  is  the  point  where  any  two  or  more  bones 
come  into  contact,  and,  when  typical,  consists  of  cartilage, 
which  coats  the  ends  of  the  bones,  ligaments  to  bind 
the  bones  together,  and  synovial  membranes  to  secrete 
the  oily  fluid  which  lubricates  the  joint. 
The  Mean-  The  muscles  are  divided  into  voluntary  and  involuntary, 
\%°^  ..    — those  under  the  control  of  the  will,  and  those  over 

ione. 

which  we  have  no  direct  control,  such  as  the  heart. 
We  should  note  particularly  the  erector  spinse,  which 
is  really  a  composite  muscle  formed  of  three  columns, 
the  outermost  of  which  is  attached  to  the  angles  of  the 
ribs  and  haunch-bone,  the  middle  to  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  vertebrae,  and  the  innermost  to  the 
spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae.  It  may  also  be 
considered  as  lying  in  five  layers,  the  lowest  of  which 
consists  of  quite  small  muscles  between  the  spine  and 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  hence  called 
spinales,  intertransversales,  and  rotatores  spinse.  In 
naming  muscles,  the  work  they  have  to  do,  their  shape 
and  position  are  taken  into  account.  Thus  those  that 
bend  the  limbs  are  termed  flexors  and  those  which 
straighten  them  the  extensors — the  one  set  being  anta- 
gonistic to  the  other.  The  significance  of  these  muscles 
will  appear  later,  but  with  this  cursory  glance  we  will 
pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  mechanism  of  the  body. 
To  keep  this  machine  in  proper  working  order  and 
ready  for  useful  employment,  it  is  requisite  that  each 
part  of  the  body  should  be  properly  strengthened,  supple, 
and  well  supplied  with  the  necessary  lubricants,  no 
part  being  stronger  or  weaker  than  in  its  own  due 
proportion.  Nature  has  ordained  that  the  only  method 
of  strengthening,  suppling,  and  lubricating  the  human 
machine  is  by  rationally  using  it.  Parts  not  used 
become  weak,  parts  properly  used  become  strong. 


EXERCISE  227 

The  two  properties  of  muscles  are  contractility  and 
elasticity,  and  the  only  way  to  use  our  muscles  is  to 
take  advantage  of  these  properties  and  contract  and 
expand  them  well.  Contraction  of  the  muscles  means 
the  movement  of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached, 
and  this  can  be  done  by  a  due  and  proper  amount  of 
exercise  of  each  muscle  or  group  of  muscles  daily.  The 
habitual  use  of  muscles  in  ordinary  work  causes  them 
to  acquire  an  abnormal  length,  some  becoming  too  long 
and  some  remaining  too  short.  This  has  a  direct 
influence  on  the  bony  framework  and  disturbs  the 
balance  of  the  body.  A  muscle  becomes  permanently 
shortened  if  it  is  never  fully  extended,  and  permanently 
lengthened  if  never  fully  contracted. 

Each  muscle  by  virtue  of  its  elasticity  or  "  tone  "  has 
what  is  called  its  medium  or  average  length,  and  the 
aim  of  physical  culture  in  middle  as  in  early  life  is  to 
restore  each  muscle  to  its  medium  length.  Muscle 
"  tone "  or  elasticity  is  really  equivalent  to  the  power 
of  contraction  without  visible  twitch,  and  the  less  tone 
the  more  excitable  and  contractile  the  muscle  becomes. 
This  readily  explains  the  quick  rapid  movements  of  the 
subject  of  nervous  exhaustion,  the  response  of  the 
muscles  in  this  condition  of  "  irritable  weakness "  being 
more  rapid  but  less  effective.  Tone  of  muscle  indicates 
the  storage  of  a  reserve  of  energy,  which  is  lost  when 
the  muscle  becomes  flabby. 

In  the  wars  of  muscles,  might  is  right  as  in  the  wars  Our  Un- 
of   the   world.      Thus   to  have  a  properly  proportioned,  employed 
equably  developed  body,  each  muscle  must  have  its  daily 
and  proper  use. 

Now  consider  that  we  have  two  hundred  and  forty- 
five  muscles,  and  think  for  a  moment  how  many  are 
actually  used  in  our  daily  work, — a  few  in  our  legs  for 


228      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

walking,  a  few  in  our  backs  to  keep  us  erect,  a  few 
in  one  or  other  arm  to  do  our  daily  work ;  seldom  are 
any  muscles  in  the  chest  used,  hence  the  prevalence  of 
flat  chest  and  round  shoulders  with  contracted  chest 
cavities  and  lungs.  None  of  the  muscles  in  front  of 
the  abdomen  are  employed  in  the  commerce  of  ordinary 
life,  hence  the  masses  of  flesh  on  the  abdominal  walls, 
causing  such  trouble  to  their  owners  in  the  shape  of 
breathlessness,  indigestion,  and  constipation.  Seldom 
are  the  muscles  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column 
equally  exercised,  and  hence  the  lateral  curvature  of 
the  spine,  the  one  shoulder  higher  than  the  other,  and 
the  swinging  ungainly  gait. 

Then,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that,  besides  the 
voluntary  muscles  of  the  body  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  there  is  no  organ,  with  perhaps  the  single 
exception  of  the  brain,  that  is  without  involuntary 
muscular  fibre,  i.e.  muscle  used  outside  the  active  control 
of  the  nervous  system,  but  lying  developed  or  undeveloped 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  voluntary  muscles. 
Most  of  the  internal  organs  of  the  body  are  in  direct 
communication  through  nerves  and  blood  vessels  with 
the  skin  and  muscles  of  the  surface,  and  it  is  only 
through  the  use  of  the  latter  that  we  can  indirectly 
ensure  that  our  vital  organs  will  be  kept  healthy. 

It  was  ordained  "  that  man  should  earn  his  bread 
by  the  sweat  of  his  brow,"  and  so  true  is  this  that  the 
man  who  elects  to  dwell  in  a  city,  where  the  necessities 
of  life  do  not  compel  muscular  so  much  as  brain 
exertion,  is  bound  to  become  unhealthy  unless  he  adopts 
some  method  of  so  using  his  muscles  daily  that  he  will 
get  the  equivalent  of  the  sweating  process. 

Many  have  the  idea  that  in  the  course  of  their  daily 
labour  they  do  quite  as  much  work  as  their  energy  can 


EXERCISE  229 

afford,  and  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  the  fully  developed 
man  who  spends  five  or  ten  minutes  each  morning  in 
brisk  free  movements,  with  one  afternoon  at  golf  and 
as  many  smart  open-air  walks  as  he  can  throughout  the 
week,  has  all  the  muscular  exertion  that  is  necessary. 

But  it  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  work  is  in  any  way 
identical  with  exercise.  It  actually  destroys  the  ideal 
heaJth  or  mechanical  beauty  of  the  body,  as  during  work 
the  flexor  muscles  are  never  fully  extended  nor  the 
extensor  muscles  ever  fully  contracted.  In  work  a  man 
does  all  he  can  to  save  exertion,  and  rightly  so.  He 
aims  at  saving  the  contractile  efforts  used  in  exercising 
the  muscles,  and  depends  chiefly  on  the  automatic  and 
elastic  property  which  we  have  before  referred  to. 
His  brain  is  engrossed  in  the  object  of  his  work,  not  in 
the  conscious  use  of  the  muscles  themselves,  and  this 
is  the  all-important  difference. 

To  exercise  a  muscle  effectively,  all  the  attention  of 
the  brain  is  required  to  contract  it  to  the  full.  A 
muscle  is  like  a  sponge,  with  an  important  difference. 
When  you  squeeze  a  sponge  all  the  moisture  it  has 
absorbed  is  expelled,  but  when  you  fully  contract  a 
muscle  under  the  immediate  observation  of  an  alert 
brain,  you  cause  a  flow  of  blood  to  every  part  of  it, 
properly  nourishing  it  and  carrying  nutriment  and 
oxygen  to  its  innermost  recesses,  so  that  when  it  is 
relaxed  the  carbonic  acid  and  waste  matter  produced 
by  its  action  are  squeezed  out  of  it,  as  the  excess  of 
moisture  out  of  the  sponge.  This  is  the  inspiration  or 
breathing  of  a  muscle,  and,  when  carried  out  all  over 
the  body,  it  results  in  a  washing  of  each  muscle  and 
organ,  so  that  the  result  of  daily  exercise  is  to  wash 
all  the  waste  matter  out  of  every  organ  and  muscle  in 
the  body  and  thus  provide  an  "  internal  bath." 


230      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

To  put  it  in  another  way,  the  muscles  are  the  organs 
in  which  chiefly  is  burnt  up  the  fuel  supplied  in  our 
food.  The  oxygen  we  breathe  from  the  air,  and  the 
pabulum  supplied  to  the  arterial  blood  by  the  digestion 
of  our  food,  are  sucked  into  a  muscle  by  its  energetic 
contraction,  and  as  a  result  combustion  takes  place,  the 
muscle  being  renewed  in  its  tissue  by  the  process,  and 
the  ashes  thrown  off  being  removed  by  the  venous  blood 
and  expelled  from  the  body  by  the  various  excretory 
organs.  Too  much  pabulum  or  too  little  exercise  leads 
to  "  dross  "  being  laid  down  in  the  shape  of  "  fat,"  which 
acts  like  "  rust "  in  machinery  by  interfering  with  the 
action  of  the  muscles.  Thus  Disuse  leads  to  Disease. 
Most  pains  in  the  body  arise  from  the  muscular  system. 
Eheumatism,  lumbago,  colic,  cramps  in  the  various 
organs,  asthma,  and  angina  pectoris  are  all  examples  of 
excessive  pain  producible  by  excessive  contraction  of 
muscular  parts,  due  to  disease. 

Exercise  is  thus  an  absolute  necessity  for  each 
individual — for  the  youth  in  order  to  full  development, 
and  for  the  adult  in  order  to  the  retention  of  that 
equable  development.  There  may  be  exceptional 
individuals  who  can  manage  without  any  or  with  very 
little,  and  there  may  be  some  who  are  damaged  by  even 
a  little  exercise,  and  of  course  it  is  a  fact  that  all  are 
liable  to  be  damaged  by  excessive  or  injudicious  exercise. 
But  for  the  typical  human  being  the  rule  of  Kfe  is  what 
has  been  just  stated. 

Having  thus  seen  the  necessity  for  exercise,  let  us 
look  for  a  moment  at  the  valuable  effects  it  produces  on 
the  organs  of  the  body.  We  have  already  touched  on 
this  subject  slightly  so  far  as  it  affects  muscle,  but  we 
must  deal  more  at  length  with  the  effects  of  exercise 
upon  the  muscular  system  generally,  upon  the  nervous 


EXERCISE  231 

system,    and    upon    the     circulation     and     the     various 
processes  which  are  thereon  dependent. 

The    Effects    of  Exep^cise   on  the    Muscular  The  Needs 
System. — If  you   examine    a    freshly   dissected    muscle  jiuscular 
you   will   find   that   it   presents  a  smooth   surface  with  System. 
rounded  outKnes  and  a  glistening  appearance  due  to  its 
sheath  of   connective   tissue.     This   sheath   sends   down 
prolongations   into    the    substance    of    the    muscle,    and 
divides  it   into   smaller   bundles   called   fasciculi.     Each 
fasciculus  consists  of  a  number  of  fibres  running  parallel 
to     each     other,    and    these    are    again    separated    by 
connective  tissue. 

The  muscle  fibre  or  cell  is  the  ultimate  and  essential 
anatomical  element  of  muscular  tissue.  It  consists  of 
soft  contractile  semi-fluid  substance  (myosin)  contained 
in  a  sheath,  is  seldom  longer  than  1|  inch,  and  varies 
in  diameter  from  -5^  to  10^00  of  an  inch.  These  fibres 
are  arranged  in  lines  of  series,  and  do  not  communicate 
one  with  another.  The  amount  of  shortening  in  a 
contracting  muscle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  contrac- 
tions of  its  individual  fibres ;  and  of  two  muscles  equal 
in  cross  section,  the  longer  can  do  more  work. 

Besides  the  contractile  substance,  its  tendons,  and  the 
sheaths  which  invest  its  fasciculi  and  fibres,  every 
muscle  has  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  Muscle  arteries 
and  veins  usually  lie  alongside  of  each  other  in  the 
connective  tissue  which  surrounds  the  fasciculi,  and 
these  minute  branches  or  capillaries  form  a  meshwork 
lying  between  and  upon  the  fibres,  but  without 
penetrating  the  sheath.  Along  these  capillaries, 
lymphatic  vessels  lie  also  between  the  fibres  and  outside 
the  fibre  sheaths,  and  derive  their  nutrient  fluid  from 
the  blood  vessels  on  the  one  hand  and  their  waste 
material   (products   of   the    muscle's    action)    from    the 


232      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

fibres  on  the  other.  A  constant  stream  of  fluid  is 
therefore  passing  from  the  blood  vessels  through  the 
sheath  of  the  fibre,  and  likewise  from  the  fibre  into  the 
space  between  the  separate  fibres,  thus  making  the  so- 
called  "  respiration  "  of  the  muscle  possible. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  nerve  fibres  in  the  muscles, 
those  which  penetrate  the  sheath  of  the  fibre  and  end  in 
its  substance  (derived  from  the  cerebro-spinal  system),  and 
those  supplying  the  blood  vessels  (derived  from  the 
sympathetic  nervous  system). 

Every  muscular  fibre  receives  a  nerve  fibre,  and  every 
nerve  fibre  being  in  direct  communication  with  the  brain 
nerve  cells,  each  muscular  fibre  is  thus  constantly  under 
the  control  of  the  brain.  When  an  emotional  state, 
such  as  fear,  produces  weakness  and  trembling  in  the 
lower  limbs,  it  is  caused  by  a  stimulation  of  the 
sympathetic  nerves  constricting  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
muscles  and  thus  cutting  off  their  blood  supply. 

Dr.  Hartwell  has  compared  the  action  of  a  muscle  to 
a  "  peculiarly  arranged  collection  of  cartridges  loaded 
with  powder  and  connected  with  wires  by  a  series  of 
electrical  batteries."  Each  muscle  fibre  stands  for  a 
cartridge,  the  shell  of  the  cartridge  being  the  sheath  and 
contractile  substance,  the  charge  of  powder  being  the 
nutrient  materials  in  the  contractile  substance,  the 
wire  from  the  battery  being  the  motor  nerve  fibres,  and 
the  cells  of  the  battery  being  the  brain  cells.  The 
electric  current  is  the  will  power,  which,  passing  from 
the  brain  along  the  nerve  to  the  muscle,  gives  rise  to  the 
phenomena  which  signalise  a  muscular  contraction.  In 
each  case  the  explosion  is  followed  by  the  evolution  of 
heat,  sound,  and  motion.  But  here  the  analogy  ends, 
for  no  mechanism  has  yet  been  found  to  re-charge 
cartridges  and  mechanically  make  them  ready  for  firing 


EXERCISE  233 

again,  whereas,  so  long  as  the  muscle  fibres  are  properly 
nourished  and  not  too  severely  stimulated,  the  muscle 
cartridges  re-load  themselves  and  are  always  ready  to 
go  off  on  the  receipt  of  a  stimulus  from  the  central 
battery. 

A  muscle  actively  contracting  uses  four  or  five  times 
as  much  oxygen  as  it  uses  during  rest,  and  it  also 
excretes  a  much  larger  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  besides 
a  definite  though  unknown  quantity  of  acid  waste 
matter.  This,  of  course,  is  the  cause  of  the  change  in 
the  tissues  which  is  constantly  going  on,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  in  one  year  tissue  changes  amounting  to 
a  ton  of  material  occur  in  a  man  weighing  140  lb. 
Four-fifths  of  the  total  heat  of  the  body  is  produced  by 
muscular  action. 

The  Effects  of  Exercise  on  the  Neevous  System. 

The  close  connection  which  we  have  seen  to  obtain  The 
between  the  muscle  cells  and  the  brain  cells  is  of  the  ^^  j®°l®^ 

and  the 

utmost  interest  and  importance.  A  surgical  section  of  Brain, 
the  brain  shows  a  thin  layer  of  grey  matter  externally 
enclosing  a  core  of  white  matter.  The  grey  layer 
consists  of  enormous  numbers  of  cells  and  minute  fibres, 
embedded  in  a  semi-fluid  substance  called  neuroglia. 
Most  of  these  cells  are  of  pyramidal  shape,  with  three  or 
more  processes  or  points  communicating  one  with  the 
other  and  with  the  nerve  fibres.  It  has  been  proved 
beyond  the  shadow  of  doubt  that  these  cells,  which  to  a 
large  extent  in  a  newly  born  infant  are  more  or  less 
rounded,  develop  the  processes  and  connection  with  each 
other  and  with  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  to  begin 
with,  as  the  result  of  mental  action.  Exercise  of  the 
muscles,  therefore,  means  that  more  nutriment  goes  to 


234      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  brain  cells,  as  the  action  of  a  part  always  demands  a 
further  supply  of  blood  to  that  part, 

G-rowth,  therefore,  of  brain  cells  takes  place  pari  j^assw 
with  that  of  muscle  cells,  and  this  is  the  explanation  of 
the  ease  with  which  one  performs  a  difficult  piece  of 
work  with  constant  practice.  At  first  the  brain  cells  can 
only  exert  their  power  singly,  but  after  much  repetition 
of  the  act  they  generally  get  associated  and  act  in  concert, 
and  the  paths  of  communication  between  them  get  wider 
and  easier  to  pass  over.  This  is  the  explanation  of  what 
is  called  the  "association  of  ideas" — the  real  basis  of 
memory,  and  the  reason  that  after  much  practice  complex 
muscular  and  mental  phenomena  are  so  easily  accomplished. 
If  the  body  does  not  get  enough  exercise,  not  only  is  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain  much  diminished, 
but  the  brain  and  the  nerve  substance  begin  to  suffer 
from  degeneration  and  atrophy,  thereafter  irritability 
and  abnormal  sensibility,  nervousness  and  melancholy 
soon  result. 

Effects  of  Exercise  on  the  Cieculation  and 
THE  Blood. 

Exercise  All  movements  increase  the  circulation  of  the  blood 

and  Blood  q]^]^q  jj^  ^]^q  arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins.     An  increased 
rressure.  '       ^  ' 

temperature,  a  pulse  increased  in  strength  and  fulness 
and  usually  in  rapidity,  and  a  ruddy  suffusion  of  the 
skin  will  readily  attest  to  the  truth  of  this  statement. 
Muscular  contraction  efiects  pressure  on  or  contraction 
of  the  walls  of  veins  and  other  blood  vessels  situated 
within  or  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  muscles. 
This  means  at  first  increased  blood  pressure.  Move- 
ments, again,  cause  an  alternate  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  neighbourhood  of  joints, 


EXERCISE  235 

and  this  may  and  does  diminish  the  flow  of  blood  to 
neighbouring  tissues  or  organs.  The  blood  pressure  is 
inversely  as  the  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  and  as  the  flow  of 
blood  in  the  circulation  is  increased  the  capillaries 
become  wider  and  fuller — the  blood  pressure  falls  and 
the  tissues  are  ^more  freely  supplied  with  the  needful 
fluid.  The  efi'ect  of  this  is  seen  in  various  correlated 
functions  of  the  body. 

(1)  The  Digestion. — Here  the  appetite  is  increased 
and  there  is  a  greater  demand  for  food,  all  the  digestive 
secretions  are  increased  in  quantity,  peristaltic  action  of 
the  stomach  is  accelerated  and  strengthened,  hastening 
the  mixing  of  the  food  with  the  gastric  juice,  and 
increasing  the  flow  of  bile  and  pancreatic  juice.  In 
addition,  peristalsis  of  the  bowel  is  increased,  and 
defsecation  much  assisted. 

(2)  The  Absorption. — This  function  is  carried  on 
chiefly  in  the  small  intestine, — only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  watery  solutions  of  salts,  grape  sugar,  poisons, 
and  alcohol  being  absorbed  from  the  stomach.  The 
capillaries  and  lacteals  being  more  flushed  with  blood 
and  the  muscular  action  of  the  small  intestine  being 
stimulated,  endosmosis,  difi'usion,  and  filtration  are 
increased,  and  a  greater  volume  of  the  intestinal  contents 
passes  into  the  blood.  Thus  the  demand  creates  the 
supply  for  muscular  action,  causes  increased  tissue  waste, 
and  this  must  be  made  good  by  materials  from  the 
digestive  surface. 

(3)  The  Secreting  Organs. — The  saliva  and  all  the 
other  digestive  juices,  the  milk  in  a  suckling  woman,  and 
indeed  all  the  products  of  the  secreting  glands,  are 
increased  by  exercise. 

(4)  The  Organs  of  Excretion. — The  sewage  system 
of  the  body    has    five    outlets    by  which    all  its  waste 


236      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

matters  are  ejected — lungs,  skin,  kidneys,  liver,  and 
bowels.  Without  exercise  it  is  impossible  to  keep  these 
in  healthy  working  order,  but  more  particularly  the 
lungs  and  skin.  The  millions  of  pores  or  sweat  glands 
in  the  latter  get  blocked  up,  and  the  cells  of  the  former 
become  atrophied,  and  hence  a  greater  share  of  the  work 
is  thrown  upon  the  liver,  bowels,  and  kidneys.  All  the 
organs  of  excretion  are  benefited  by  exercise. 

(a)  The  Lungs. — The  eifect  of  exercise  here  is  to 
increase  the  amount  of  oxygen  inspired  and  the  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  expired,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  the 
section  upon  "Air."  The  number  of  respirations  being 
greatly  increased,  the  respiratory  muscles  are  exercised, 
the  circulation  in  the  pulmonary  vessels  is  increased,  the 
lung  tissue  developed,  and  the  chest  capacity  greatly 
augmented.  If  in  lying  down  we  insphe  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  volumes  of  air  per  horn",  it  has  been  calcul- 
ated that  in  gentle  walking,  four  miles  an  hour,  we  use 
five  hundred  volumes,  and  by  violent  exercise  we  may 
increase  this  to  seven  hundred  volumes  per  hour. 

(h)  The  Skin. — Exercise  causes  a  dilatation  of  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  skin  and  an  increased  excretion  of 
sweat  from  its  glands,  which  may  exceed  2  lb.  per 
day.  This  heats  the  skin  itself,  but  cools  the  body  on 
account  of  the  evaporation,  and  of  the  fact  that  more 
heat  is  given  off  from  a  warm  surface  than  from  a  cold 
one,  and  thus  the  temperature  of  the  blood  is  never,  even 
by  violent  exercise,  raised  more  than  1°  F. 

(c)  The  Kidneys. — Exercise  increases  the  fiow  of 
urine  through  the  kidneys.  The  chief  cause  of  this  is 
that  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  increased,  and  hence 
the  filtration  of  urine  is  directly  increased,  whilst  the 
secretion  is  only  indirectly  affected.  As  so  much  fluid 
is  thrown  off  by  the    skin,    thirst   is    created,  and  the 


EXERCISE  237 

satisfaction  of  this  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  increased 
nitrogenous  waste  matters  and  salts  provided  by  muscular 
activity  may  be  carried  off  in  solution  through  the 
medium  of  the  urine.  Thus  the  blood  is  purified.  At 
the  same  time  the  bladder  and  the  abdominal  muscles 
which  take  part  in  micturition  are  strengthened. 

{d)  and  {e)  The  Liver  and  Bowels. — As  already 
seen,  the  effect  of  exercise  is  to  increase  the  secretion  of 
bile  and  peristalsis  of  the  bowel,  thus  aiding  defaecation. 

In  light  of  these  facts  one  does  not  wonder  how 
congestion  of  the  liver,  and  cancer  of  the  bowels,  and 
Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys  should  arise.  Throw 
each  day  a  little  extra  work  on  each  of  these  organs, 
either  by  eating  too  much  or  exercising  too  little,  and  in 
time  some  disease  is  bound  to  attack  them.  If,  however, 
regular  exercise  be  taken  daily  so  as  to  apportion  to 
each  organ  its  proper  share  of  work  and  to  ensure  the 
regular  expulsion  of  all  waste  matters  from  the  body,  it 
is  much  more  difficult,  nay  well-nigh  impossible,  for  the 
seeds  of  disease  to  find  an  entrance  into  the  body.  A 
good,  pure,  healthy  stream  of  blood  is  the  best  protective 
against  disease  germs. 

Even  when  by  carelessness  or  neglect  the  body  has  To  Fight 
departed  from  the  normal  and  the  soil  is  being  prepared  ^^' 
for  the  reception  of  disease  germs,  the  adoption  of  some 
sensible  daily  form  of   physical  exercise  is  usually  the 
best  means  of  regaining  the  lost  vigour. 

Obesity  is  nearly  always  the  body's  vote  of  censure 
for  eating  too  much  food  or  taking  too  little  exercise, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  properly  to  balance  the  income 
and  expenditure  in  order  to  keep  a  well-nourished  body. 
It  is  important  to  note  that  it  is  usually  around  those 
muscles  which  are  rarely  exercised  in  any  adequate 
manner  that  fat  accumulates,  e.g.  the  abdominal  muscles. 


238      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Excessive  thinness,  again,  which  is  usually  brought 
about  by  overwork,  indigestion,  overstudy,  anxiety,  worry 
and  loss  of  sleep,  is  usually  caused  to  disappear  by  the 
regular  practice  of  some  light  system  of  physical  culture, 
ensuring  the  removal  of  all  harmful  waste  matter  from 
the  system  and  the  adequate  circulation  of  proper 
nutriment  to  all  the  tissues.  For  the  same  reason  also, 
dyspepsia,  constipation,  insomnia,  anaemia,  and  most 
gouty  and  rheumatic  troubles  can  be  prevented  or  cured 
in  their  early  stages  by  physical  culture. 

Probably,  however,  the  most  important  function  that 
regular  exercise  serves  in  the  body  of  even  the  well- 
developed  adult  is  to  counteract  or  prevent  the  deforming 
results  of  daily  work.  We  are  all  more  or  less  deformed. 
We  are  not  symmetrical.  We  are  right-handed  because 
we  use  the  right  hand  most,  being  taught  to  do  so  when 
children,  and  this  is  responsible  for  a  slight  inclination  of 
the  vertebral  column  in  the  dorsal  region  towards  the 
right  side.  Ambidexterity  would  be  useful,  were  it  only 
to  preserve  perfectly  accurate  alignment  in  the  spine,  as 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  although  compensation  is 
hkely  to  take  place,  disorders  of  various  kinds  are  apt  to 
arise  when  vertebrte  are  misplaced.  Used  parts  become 
strong,  unused  parts  get  weak ;  the  stronger  pulls  against 
the  weaker,  and  some  part  is  pulled  out  of  the  straight. 
This  is  no  doubt  the  foundation  of  most  of  our 
asymmetry. 
Sins  of  the  In  most  schools,  even  at  the  present  day,  seats  without 
School-      backs,  or   the  merest  apologies  for  such — indeed,  worse 

room.  '  re 

than  none  at  all — are  provided,  and  to  make  matters 
worse,  the  desks  are  put  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
children  must  bend  over  them  to  read  or  write.  The 
back  is  thus  first  curved  backward  ;  the  shoulders,  falling 
forwards,  cramping  the  free  play  of  the  lungs ;  the  left 


EXERCISE  239 

arm  is  placed  on  the  desk  in  writing,  the  left  shoulder 
advanced,  and  the  right  slightly  retracted  with  a  little 
rotation,  and  so  the  muscles  of  the  one  side  pull  the 
spine  a  little  to  that  side,  and  lateral  curv^ature  is  set  up. 
This  is  again  much  increased  by  the  constant  habit  of 
standing,  chiefly  on  one  foot,  which  is  practised  very 
largely  at  school  when  children  are  allowed  to  stand. 

The  true  remedy  for  all  this  is  the  provision  of  a  seat 
which  will  permit  a  child  to  rest  its  spine  in  the  proper 
position  of  erectness,  and  the  provision  of  a  desk  or 
reading  board  on  a  level  with  the  child's  face.  An 
interruption  of  the  study  for  five  minutes  every  hour  or 
less  should  also  take  place,  and  diu'iug  this  some  exercise 
to  strengthen  the  back  muscles  should  be  practised. 

If  those  strong  muscles  which  hold  the  spine  erect 
and  give  it  lateral  support  are  not  strengthened  in  youth, 
the  ligaments  between  the  bones  are  stretched,  and  never 
resume  their  health  and  tone,  as  they  are  only  provided 
to  limit  motion — not  to  assist  the  supporting  muscles  of 
the  frame  in  doing  their  proper  work.  Ligaments  are 
composed  of  strong  inelastic  tissue,  which,  although 
fairly  unyielding,  is  apt  to  give  way  when  too  much 
strain  is  put  upon  it,  instead  of  dependence  being  placed 
on  the  strong  contractile  and  elastic  muscles.  Muscular 
vitality  is  the  proper  guarantee  that  the  merely  binding 
ligamentous  tissue  will  not  be  asked  to  perform  a  function 
it  was  not  meant  to  exercise. 

It  is  not  of  any  real  value  to  tell  round-shouldered 
people  to  draw  their  shoulders  back.  The  shoulder 
muscles  are  quite  independent  of  the  spinal  muscles,  and 
we  have  already  seen  that  the  upper  limb  in  no  way 
depends  for  its  support  on  the  spine.  Such  action  will 
not  strengthen  their  backs,  nor  will  any  kind  of  shoulder 
strap  or  brace  be  of  any  use ;  it  will  make  the  wearer 
16 


240      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

more  stiff  and  ungainly  in  his  motion.  The  obvious 
method  of  correction  is  not  to  put  a  splint  on  the  weak 
side  or  any  side,  but  to  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the 
weak  side  and  enable  them  to  withstand  the  pulling  of 
the  strong  side. 

With  such  a  history  in  our  schooldays  and  the 
knowledge  that  occupations  have  not  a  tendency  to 
develop  our  bodies  equably,  it  has  always  appeared 
incomprehensible  to  me  that  we  have  not  yet  adopted 
special  precautions  to  ensure  a  proper  posture  in  our 
homes.  Yet  it  is  seldom  that  chairs  are  made  which 
would  encourage  us  to  sit  properly,  so  that  we  are  apt  to 
shoot  out  the  lower  part  of  our  backs  and  so  put  a  strain 
on  parts  which  are  not  fitted  to  withstand  it.  Besides, 
the  straightening  in  the  lumbar  curve  cannot  take  place 
without  interfering  with  the  other  spinal  curves,  and  so  we 
lose  the  erect  figure  which  is  the  pride  of  man,  and  approxi- 
mate to  the  crawling  posture  of  the  beasts  of  the  field. 

We  should  be  measured  for  our  chairs,  just  as  we  are 
measured  for  our  clothes.  But  even  when  our  chairs  are 
quite  suitable  to  the  contour  of  our  backbone,  we  are  not 
content  to  adopt  a  correct  attitude,  but  cross  one  leg  over 
the  other  in  a  perversely  persistent  effort  to  distort  our 
frames.  Whether  this  is  a  modern  innovation,  since  the 
practice  of  reclining  at  meals  and  in  reception-rooms  was 
abolished,  I  cannot  say,  but  it  tends  grievously  to 
exaggerate  the  straightening  of  the  lumbar  curve,  with 
all  its  drawbacks,  and  introduces  a  new  feature  in  the 
rotation  of  the  pelvis,  with  all  its  stretching  of  ligaments 
and  pressure  upon  nerves. 

Then  again,  we  walk  with  protruding  abdomen  and 
head  shot  forward  between  the  shoulders,  instead  of 
being  thoroughly  braced  up  with  the  back  of  the  neck 
touching  the  upper  edge  of  the  collar.     A  similar  sitting 


EXERCISE  241 

position  at  table  is  conducive  to  indigestion,  and,  like  our 
sleeping  posture,  allows  some  muscles  to  stretch  and 
others  to  contract  in  such  a  way  that  to  prevent  them 
from  distorting  our  bodies  it  is  necessary  to  counteract 
the  tendency  by  physical  exercises. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  the  recumbent  posture, 
whether  in  bed  or  on  a  couch,  is  the  one  position  where, 
without  strain  of  any  kind,  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
absolute  rest.  And  even  this  is  possible  only  to  those 
wise  and  fortunate  beings  who  have  learned  to  relax  their 
muscles,  which  can  be  done  in  this  posture  without  any 
damage  to  the  ligaments. 

When  we  begin  to  inquire  into  the  best  means  for 
obtaining  the  valuable  effects  of  exercise  we  are  con- 
fronted with  many  difficulties,  not  the  least  of  them 
being  the  popular  fallacy  that  the  true  object  of  physical 
culture  is  simply  muscle-building. 

Such  a  misconception  is  the  basis  of  all  the  so-called 
systems  emanating  from  the  hordes  of  irregular  practi- 
tioners and  self-styled  professors,  most  of  which  are 
calculated  to  damage  the  body  irreparably.  Dumb-bells, 
home  exercisers,  Indian  clubs,  and  all  other  forms  of 
apparatus  have  an  undoubted  value  in  the  hands  of 
expert  teachers  and  trainers ;  but  if  we  are  to  use  any  of 
these  at  all,  let  us  see  to  it  that  only  such  means  are 
adopted  as  are  consistent  with  the  effective  development 
of  the  whole  man  without  any  possibility  of  doing  harm. 

The  gymnasium  is  certainly  the  ideal  place  for  the 
efficient  development  of  the  body,  and  the  time  has  come 
for  the  public  authorities  to  take  the  matter  in  hand 
and  provide  unlimited  opportunities  for  the  physical  in- 
struction of  the  youth  of  the  nation.  Too  long  has  this 
important  matter  been  left  to  private  generosity  and 
enterprise,  with    the   usual   result   that  a  favoured  few 


242      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

have  reaped  the  advantages  which  rightfully  belonged 
to  all.  Other  countries,  such  as  Germany,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Norway,  have  for  many  years  trained  not 
only  the  children  of  their  schools,  but  the  young  men 
all  over  the  country,  in  the  very  best  equipped  gymnasia, 
and  every  visitor  to  these  countries  comes  away  deeply 
impressed  with  the  immense  value  which  has  accrued  to 
the  physique  of  the  nation.  Whatever  truth  there  may 
be  in  the  cry  that  the  Government  must  supply  work  to 
the  man  who  is  willing  to  work,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  its  chief  duty  is  to  give  equal  opportunities  to  all  to 
acquire  a  healthy  body.  This  is  the  direction  which 
social  enterprise  must  take,  and  I  believe  the  day  is  not 
far  distant  when  every  school  at  least  will  be  supphed 
with  a  thoroughly  equipped  gymnasium  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  very  best  instructors,  who  will  be 
compelled  to  keep  the  institution  open  till  ten  o'clock 
every  evening  so  that  all  who  are  wilHng  can  take  full 
advantage  of  its  benefits  even  after  they  have  left  school. 

With  such  means  at  his  disposal  and  such  compulsory 
instruction  during  his  childhood's  days,  the  well-developed 
man  of  five-and-twenty  would  require  only  to  devote, 
say,  five  minutes  each  morning  of  his  life  to  a  few  well 
selected  exercises  in  order  to  retain  the  elasticity  and 
vigour  he  has  acquired,  leaving  an  afternoon  or  two  each 
week  for  the  purpose  of  recreative  exercise. 

The  basis  of  all  modern  physical  culture  was  laid  in 
1815  by  Peter  Henrik  Ling,  a  Swede,  who,  in  a  truly 
scientific  method,  from  an  extremely  fertile  brain,  evolved 
the  system  which  still  goes  by  his  name,  and  was  divided 
by  him  into  four  sections : — 

(1)  Educational — movements  chiefly  useful  in  pro- 
moting and  maintaining  normal  bodily 
development. 


EXERCISE  243 

(2)  Medical — used  only  for  curative  or  preventive 

purposes,  and   extensively  supplemented  by 
massage. 

(3)  Military — for    the    training    of    soldiers    and 

sailors. 

(4)  Esthetic — to     give    outward     expression    to 

thought  and  emotion. 

All  systems  of  physical  culture  worthy  of  the  name 
owe  their  soundness  entirely  to  the  principles  underlying 
the  Ling  system,  which  has  been  developed  at  Stockholm 
by  a  host  of  teachers,  who  are  worthy  successors  of  its 
immortal  founder. 

The  prime  object  of  athletics  and  exercise  is  the 
improvement  of  the  general  health,  and  no  movement  in 
the  Ling  system  is  permitted  which  does  not  have  a 
beneficial  influence  on  the  internal  organs.  Concentra- 
tion of  the  mind  on  the  particular  muscles  which  are 
being  contracted  will  increase  the  attendant  fatigue, 
according  to  the  effort  of  will  required.  Therefore, 
persons  who  are  already  weak  in  their  nervous  organisa- 
tions, or  who  are  readily  tired,  should  first  begin  with 
massage  or  passive  exercise  by  assisted  or  resisted 
movements.  It  is  unwise  to  drill  school  children  in 
complex  calisthenics.  Their  young  and  growing  brains 
are  quickly  tired  by  such  a  tax,  and  it  is  much  wiser 
to  let  them  indulge  in  a  romping  game  in  the  open 
air. 

Indolent  people  should  concentrate  their  minds  on 
complicated  exercises,  such  as  riding,  tennis,  and  fencing. 
Neurotic  subjects,  on  the  other  hand,  to  whom  any  form 
of  attention  is  an  effort  and  may  be  harmful,  should  at 
first  practise  breathing  exercises  and  then  go  on  to  more 
difficult  forms. 

Weak  patients  should  at  first  never  be  pushed  to  the 


244      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

point  of  fatigue,  but  later  on  this  may  be  done  with 
advantage,  and  indeed  without  it  the  greatest  good 
is  not  possible.  It  is  wise  never  to  hold  the  breath 
longer  than  one  can  count  ten,  but  it  is  often  a  distinct 
advantage  to  do  it  within  this  limit,  as  the  air  becomes 
warmer  and  expands,  and  by  this  means  is  driven  into 
every  distant  air  vesicle  and  exercises  it. 

The  spontaneity  of  the  play  of  young  children  and 
animals  is  recognised  to  be  necessary  for  the  growth  and 
development  of  their  minds  and  bodies,  and  thus  from 
the  age  of  one  up  to  seven,  play  with  very  little 
gymnastic  exercise  should  suffice  for  all  the  physical 
wants  of  any  child. 

From  the  age  of  seven  to  fourteen,  at  least  three  hours 
per  week  of  gymnastic  exercise  should  be  expected  of 
every  child,  and  this  is  the  best  means  for  the  attainment 
of  flexibility  of  body,  beauty  of  figure,  and  grace  of  de- 
portment. Nothing  violent  should  be  attempted,  but 
everything  kept  well  within  the  limits  of  the  child's 
strength,  but  at  such  an  age  the  greatest  importance  is  to 
be  attached  to  properly  regulated  exercises.  In  addition 
to  this,  games  in  the  open  air  in  which  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  walking  and  running  should  be  encouraged. 

From  the  age  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five  the  gymnastic 
exercises  should  continue,  gradually  increasing  in  severity 
and  complexity ;  but  at  this  period  the  sexes  should  be 
separated,  as  women  require  a  different  kind  of  training 
from  men,  because  their  muscles  never  become  so  large 
or  prominent. 

From  the  age  of  twenty-five  to  the  end  of  life  as  much 
recreative  exercise  should  be  taken  in  the  open  air  as 
possible,  chiefiy  in  the  shape  of  golf,  walking,  moderate 
cycling,  bowling,  etc.,  and  at  least  five  minutes  should 
be  spent  each  morning  in  undoing  the  evil  effects  of  the 


EXERCISE  245 

previous  clay's  work.     By  this  means  the  body  remains 
graceful  and  flexible  until  the  very  end. 

But  physical  deterioration  may  be  brought  about  as 
well    by  excessive    exercise  as    by  too   little.     Broadly  Ovcr- 
speaking,  a  community  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,        °  ^' 
the  weak  and  the  strong,  and  it  is  absolutely  certain  that 
not  every  weak  man  can  become  a  strong  man,  no  matter 
how  much  exercise  he  may  indulge  in. 

Strong  men  are  born,  not  made.  Physical  culture 
may  make  a  weak  man  strong,  but  only  if  he  belongs  to 
the  strong  type.  On  the  other  hand,  a  weak  man  may 
nearly  always  become  a  healthy  man,  though  it  is  folly 
to  emulate  the  professional  strong  man  and  expect,  even 
by  the  most  diligent  use  of  certain  exercises  and  appar- 
atus, to  approach  him  in  strength ;  this,  unfortunately, 
does  not  always  become  patent  until  much  damage  has 
been  wrought  to  the  physical  powers,  and  especially 
to  the  heart  and  nervous  system.  He  whom  I  have 
designated  the  weak  man  may,  like  the  racehorse,  per- 
form in  his  particular  sphere  as  much  and  possibly 
even  more  work  than  the  so-called  strong  man,  who  may 
be  only  useful  as  a  beast  of  burden,  like  the  cart- 
horse. 

The  principle  adopted  in  most  popular  forms  of 
physical  culture  is  that  of  Milo  and  the  calf — the 
addition  of  a  little  more  each  day,  but  as  each  man  has 
his  physiological  limit  beyond  w^hich  it  is  dangerous  for 
him  to  attempt  to  increase  his  physical  powers,  it  is 
wise  to  pull  up  well  on  the  safe  side. 

It  is  usual  to  consider  man  in  his  threefold  combina- 
tion of  soul,  intellect,  and  body,  and  the  all-round  man 
develops  none  of  those  at  the  expense  of  the  others. 
It  has  been  said  that  a  man  with  an  over-developed 
spiritual  being  is  a  fanatic  ;  the  possessor    of  an  over- 


246      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

developed  intellect,  a  faddist ;  and  the  man  who  spends 
too  much  time  in  the  development  of  his  body,  a  fool. 
Every  one  has  a  certain  allowance  of  potential  energy 
which  he  is  able,  by  the  working  of  his  body,  intellect, 
and  emotional  or  spiritual  being,  to  convert  into  so  many 
units  of  actual  or  kinetic  energy.  The  more  of  this 
energy  he  expends  in  one  or  other  of  these  directions, 
the  less  he  has  to  expend  in  other  directions,  without  at 
least  drawing  upon  his  reserve  store.  If  it  were  possible 
to  increase  our  store  of  potential  energy  without  limit 
we  should  correspondingly  increase  our  mental,  physical, 
or  emotional  or  spiritual  expenditure  of  energy  in  the 
same  degree.  But  it  is  only  possible  to  do  this  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  and  hence  the  fallacy  of  continually 
and  daily  increasing  our  task  in  order  to  make  us  strong 
physically. 

For  the  sake  of  example,  let  us  say  that  a  man  has 
one  hundred  units  of  potential  energy  to  expend  daily. 
It  stands  to  reason  that  if  ninety  are  expended  in 
physical  work  only  ten  are  left  for  intellectual  and 
emotional  work,  and  vice  versa — which  is  only  another 
way  of  saying  that  physical  exhaustion  causes  mental 
fatigue,  and  vice  versa.  Now,  by  whatever  standard  we 
elect  to  measure  the  energy  available  for  a  day's  work, 
it  is  quite  certain  it  is  not  limitless,  and  equally  certain 
that  the  limit  is  much  more  easily  reached  in  the  town- 
bred  man  of  to-day  that  in  the  country-bred  man  of  a 
hundred  years  ago.  Hence  the  principle  of  adding  a 
little  more  each  day  is  most  dangerous  in  practice,  on 
account  of  the  impossibility  of  knowing  precisely  how 
much  should  be  added  each  day,  or  of  recognising  when 
the  proper  limit  has  been  reached. 

Violent  exertion  can  never  be  useful,  and  almost 
always  ends  in  irreparable  strain,  such  as  the  rupture  of 


EXERCISE  247 

a  blood  vessel  or  stretx3hing  the  heart — examples  of 
which  are  constantly  coming  before  medical  men.  An 
athlete  is  a  bad  risk  for  an  Insurance  Company,  and  a 
big  muscular  development  promotes  a  condition  of  pre- 
mature senility,  with  often  an  abrupt  and  violent  ter- 
mination of  life  as  distinguished  from  the  slow  and 
gradual  character  of  typical  senile  decay. 

Built-up  or  hypertrophied  muscle  has  a  great  ten- 
dency to  degenerate,  and  this  applies  to  the  heart  as  well 
as  to  the  voluntary  muscles.  We  must  not  for  one 
moment  confuse  physical  culture  for  health  with  such 
systems,  or  with  needless  and  injurious  forms  of  athleti- 
cism. Excessive  weight,  whether  of  fat  or  muscle,  is  not 
a  storehouse  of  reserve  energy,  but  a  burden  which 
demands  nourishment  if  it  is  muscle,  and  interferes 
with  nutrition  if  it  is  fat.  No  "  over-weight "  dies  of 
old  age  or  senility,  nor  nowadays  attains  the  age  of 
eighty ;  whereas  it  is  quite  a  common  thing  for  under- 
weights to  live  to  eighty,  ninety,  or  even  a  hundred. 

The  effects  of  over-exercise  may  either  be  consti- 
tutional or  local,  and  examples  of  the  latter  are  quite 
common  amongst  those  with  a  neurotic  temperament, 
causing  such  diseases  as  writer's,  telegraphist's,  violin 
and  piano-player's,  compositor's,  cigarette-maker's,  etc., 
etc.  cramp,  and  appearing  in  many  other  forms  where 
prolonged  employment  of  special  nerve  movements, 
called  for  by  the  occupation  or  trade  concerned,  produces 
spasms  in  certain  muscles  which  are  quite  capable  of 
being  used  normally  for  all  other  movements.  In  the 
cure  of  such  conditions  rest  is  an  important  factor,  in 
addition  to  the  employment  of  massage  and  even  regul- 
ated physical  culture  in  the  muscles  affected. 

One  has  always  to  pay  the  penalty  of  excessively 
exerting  one's  muscles,  and  each  sport  nowadays  has  its 


248      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

deformity,  as  witness  the  croquet  knee,  the  tennis  elbow, 
rider's  bone,  golfer's  in-toes,  etc.  All  the  exercise 
needed  by  the  busy  man  is  just  that  which  will  make 
the  physical  machine  run  smoothly  and  evenly.  Any 
amount  beyond  this,  and  certainly  if  a  feeling  of  weari- 
ness be  experienced  after  it,  is  wasting  energy  and  doing 
the  individual  harm.  Energy  is  needed  for  digestion, 
for  thinking,  for  daily  work,  and  none  should  be  need- 
lessly expended  on  excessive  exercise.  The  unnecessary 
breaking  down  of  tissue  during  heavy  exercise  makes  a 
man  feverish,  causes  toxaemia  or  temporary  blood  poison- 
ing, and  strains  the  heart  and  kidneys.  Hence  the 
feeling  of  restlessness  induced  by  training  in  those  who 
call  themselves  "  fit." 

If  we  examine  the  comparative  mortality  tables  of  the 
Kegistrar  G-eneral  we  find  that  the  men  who  live  the 
longest  are  those  who  are  called  upon  for  the  least 
physical  output,  —  clergymen,  schoolmasters,  grocers, 
authors,  and  scientists ;  and  those  who  die  the  soonest 
are  largely  men  whose  occupations  demand  the  hardest 
labour  —  dock  labourers,  coal  heavers,  and  general 
labourers  of  all  classes  in  industrial  districts.  It  is  the 
air  which  is  the  greatest  benefactor,  and  fresh  air  is  more 
important  than  muscular  effort,  bus  drivers  and  cabmen 
leading  sedentary  lives  in  the  open  air  being  amongst 
the  healthiest  of  men.  Enough  exercise  to  put  all  the 
muscles  in  play,  start  the  blood  moving,  and  expand  the 
lungs  is  good,  stimulating  the  assimilation  of  oxygen 
and  helping  the  elimination  of  waste  material. 

It  is  said  that  the  Gulf  States  in  the  south  of  North 
America  are  full  of  widows,  because  the  men  are  up  and 
out  all  day  following  the  most  exhausting  pursuits,  both 
in  labour  and  recreation,  while  the  wives  sit  at  home 
with  open  doors  getting  all  the  advantages  of  the  air 


EXERCISE  249 

without  wearing  themselves  out.  And  these  women  are 
said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  and  longest  lived  in  the 
world,  only  taking  moderate  exercise,  but  living  with  the 
doors  and  windows  of  their  houses  open  all  the  year 
round.  Surely  a  striking  commentary  on  the  gospel  of 
excessive  exercise  so  sedulously  preached  and  practised, 
and  a  text  for  the  necessity  of  a  gospel  of  relaxation. 

Ample  testimony  to  the  need  of  simple  relaxation  is  "Relaxa- 
easily  forthcoming.  Most  observant  people  must  have  Art  of*^^ 
noticed,  during  any  time  they  have  had  for  reflection  in  Rest, 
this  hurried  life,  that  even  when  they  are  still  and  at 
rest  they  are  conscious  of  an  effort  of  striving,  character- 
ised by  a  feeling  of  tension  or  strain  somewhere  in  the 
pit  of  their  stomachs.  I  have  seen  a  statement  some- 
where that  this  sensation  originates  in  the  solar  plexus, 
that  Great  Clapham  Junction  of  nerves  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  gastric  region,  but  I  am  more  inclined  to 
think  it  is  due  to  contraction  of  some  of  the  muscles 
associated  with  respiration.  If  they  will  pursue  their 
investigations  further  and  make  a  few  tentative  experi- 
ments to  relieve  this  strain,  they  will  find  that  it  requires 
a  conscious  "  letting  go  "  of  something  in  the  epigastrium, 
and  this  is  probably  a  relaxing  of  the  diaphragm  and 
other  muscles  in  close  proximity  to  it.  In  any  case,  a 
few  deep  breaths  will  always  be  found  to  be  a  great 
relief  to  the  strain,  and  it  is  just  possible  that  all  the 
discomfort  is  produced  by  shallow  breathing,  always 
present  in  that  concentration  of  the  attention  known  as 
anxiety,  and  closely  allied  to  fear. 

All  this  is  pretty  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
struggle  for  existence  has  resolved  itself  into  a  breath- 
less and  exhausting  nervous  strife  which  is  not  content 
with  a  healthy  muscular  "  tone,"  but  transforms  it  into 
a    muscular    contraction  in  an    effort  to  get  there  one 


2  50      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

moment  before  the  other  competitors.  It  is  a  common- 
place observation  that  the  business  man's  face,  ay,  and 
business  woman  and  housewife's  face,  wears  an  anxious, 
strained,  almost  pained  expression,  indicative  of  the  high 
tension  of  the  nervous  system.  This  is  brought  about 
largely  by  neglecting  to  take  rest  when  the  time  for 
rest  arrives,  and  by  working  with  more  than  the  amount 
of  force  needed  to  accomplish  the  end  in  view. 

The  nervous  system  can  never  be  at  its  best  when 
proper  food  and  recreative  exercise,  with  appropriate 
rest  and  economy  of  force  in  work,  are  denied  the  body. 
Now,  whilst  physical  culture  can  do  much  for  us  in 
teaching  us  how  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  work 
out  of  our  muscles  with  the  least  expenditure  of  energy, 
and  while  recreative  exercises  like  golf  and  motoring, 
which  are  the  beau-ideal  of  fatigue-sparing  and  fatigue- 
dispelling  forms  of  recreation — can  likewise  aid  us 
greatly,  there  is  little  doubt  that  there  is  room  for  some 
method  which  will  teach  us  how  to  rest  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  One  would  hardly  think  that  this  was 
necessary,  but  when  one  considers  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  sit  on  a  chair  without  inducing  some  strain 
in  the  ligaments  and  muscles  of  the  body,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  the  proposition  is  not  quite  so  surprising. 

The  simplest  solution  would  appear  to  be  to  go  to 
bed  whenever  a  rest  was  desirable,  and  there  are  those 
who  believe  that  the  best  holidays  are  spent  in  this  form 
of  rest.  There  are  many,  indeed,  who  do  not  believe  in 
bottling  up  their  time  for  spells  of  holiday  recreation 
or  even  rest,  but  consider  that  it  is  much  wiser  to  take 
this  in  the  shape  of  shorter  and  more  frequent  periods 
throughout  the  working  day. 

Still,  we  have  seen  that  even  rest  in  bed  is  not  perfect 
unless  we  know  how  to  relax  our  muscles  so  that  they 


EXERCISE  251 

may  obtain  their  full  supply  of  nerve  force  and  blood 
without  the  necessity  for  any  expenditure  of  energy. 
They  are  thus  subjected  to  the  most  favourable  conditions 
for  growth  and  development. 

This  relaxing  process  can  only  be  made  to  yield  the 
best  results  by  the  most  assiduous  practice,  and  is  different 
from  anything  else  in  our  bodily  experience,  because 
whilst  induced  without  effort  it  is  an  active  phenomenon 
in  the  sense  that  it  is  done  under  the  influence  of  the 
will.  Each  limb  or  portion  of  a  limb  may  be  allowed 
to  relax  hj  simply  giving  way  completely  to  the  laws 
of  gravity,  and  the  same  thing  applies  to  the  head  and 
neck,  although  daily  practice  is  essential  to  get  the  best 
results.  Any  one  who  is  in  the  habit  of  using  physical 
manipulation  for  therapeutic  purposes  knows  how  difficult 
it  is  to  get  patients  completely  to  relax  their  muscles, 
and  yet,  without  this,  beneficial  and  remedial  results  are 
hardly  attainable. 

Both  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscles  can  brassage. 
be  conducted  in  a  passive  instead  of  an  active  manner 
by  the  intervention  of  a  skilled  attendant.  The  former 
is  practised  under  the  name  of  Massage,  which  may  be 
defined  as  the  communication  of  motion  to  the  tissues 
of  the  body  from  an  external  source,  for  therapeutic 
purposes.  It  consists  in  kneading,  squeezing,  beating, 
stroking,  and  rubbing  the  muscular  tissues  of  the  body 
through  the  skin.  This  produces  a  quickened  movement 
of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries,  increased  absorption  of 
both  blood  and  lymph,  increased  secretion,  and  indeed 
its  effects  are  entirely  identical  with  those  of  exercise, 
with  this  important  exception,  that  there  is  no  effort  of 
the  nervous  system  involved,  and  hence  no  expenditure 
of  nerve  force.  In  cases  of  exhaustion,  therefore,  it  is 
calculated  to  produce  a  rapidly  restorative  effect  on  the 


252      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

body,  which  could  not  be  obtained  if  active  exercise  were 
being  indulged  in.  As,  however,  it  could  not  be  carried 
on  for  an  indefinite  period  with  advantage  to  the  body, 
it  is  necessary  to  pass  by  gradually  increasing  modes  of 
effort  to  complete  activity.  Hence  active  movements 
are  first  assisted  and  then  resisted,  and  so  strength  is 
obtained. 
Osteo-  Passive  Relaxation  of  the  muscles  is  performed  in 

pathy.  quite  a  different  manner,  and  to  explain  it  fully  involves 
the  consideration  of  the  new  practice  imported  from 
America,  and  dignified  by  the  somewhat  cumbrous  and 
misleading  appellation  of  osteopathy.  Its  devotees  define 
it  as  the  adjustment  of  anatomical  abnormalities,  and  to 
appreciate  its  significance  it  is  almost  necessary  to  invent 
a  new  pathology.  Briefiy  it  amounts  to  this,  that 
anatomical  abnormahties,  which  they  call  "  lesions," 
produce  physiological  discord  or  functional  disorder,  which 
may  develop  into  organic  disease. 

Osteopathic  lesions  may  be  :  (1)  Osseous,  i.e.  an 
abnormal  change  of  position  or  relation  of  the  many 
bony  constituents  of  the  body.  This  may  be  produced 
by  {a)  violence,  blows,  strains,  falls,  etc. ;  (6)  indirectly 
by  atmospheric  changes,  over-exercise  or  violent  exercise, 
etc.,  through  the  medium  of  muscle  changes ;  (c)  reflexly, 
e.g.  errors  of  diet  may  cause  muscular  irritation  in  the 
dorsal  region  with  contraction  of  muscles,  which  again 
may  set  up  an  osseous  lesion,  and  this  may  in  turn 
cause  chronic  indigestion.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases 
these  bony  lesions  are  to  be  found  in  the  vertebral 
column  and  the  ribs,  and  consist  of  so-called  subluxations 
or  partial  dislocations.  These  are  not  measured  in  inches 
as  surgical  dislocations  are,  but  a  mensuration  in  milli- 
metres suffices  for  the  estimation. 

(2)  Muscular.      These  may  be  actual  dislocations   of 


EXERCISE  253 

muscle  or  tendon,  but  are  usually  what  is  designated  as 
"  contractured."  However  inelegant  the  designation  may 
be,  it  is  certain  that  in  many  cases  one  can  feel  that 
certain  muscles  are  swollen,  having  a  doughy  feeling,  are 
inclined  to  pit  on  pressure,  are  painful  and  sometimes 
hot.  This  may  be  caused  by  (a)  violence,  (&)  atmospheric 
influences,  (c)  reflex  irritation,  (d)  or  be  secondary  to 
osseous  lesions.  Whatever  malign  effects  may  arise  from 
them  are  produced  by  pressure  upon  blood  and  lymph 
channels,  and  on  the  nerves. 

(3)  Ligamentous,  usually  secondary  to  the  osseous, 
and  presenting  one  of  two  features :  (a)  thickening  with 
adhesions,  or  (6)  relaxation. 

(4)  Visceral,  e.g.  movable  kidney  or  other  internal  organ. 

(5)  Composite,  i.e.  affecting  osseous,  muscular,  and 
ligamentous  tissues  as  a  whole,  a  good  illustration  being 
an  abnormal  curvature  of  the  vertebral  column. 

Now,  nervous  tissue  and  arterial  blood  are  the  con-  Theory 
trolling  and  governing  factors  in  health,  and  disturbances  practice 
of  these  tissues  are  necessarily  productive  of  ill-health. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  restorative  potency  of  these 
elements  in  their  perfect  state  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated, as  witness  the  achievement  of  Professor  Eric 
Lexer,  of  Konigsberg,  who  is  reported  to  have  excised  the 
stiff  knee  of  a  young  woman  of  eighteen,  and  replaced  it 
by  that  of  an  old  man  whose  leg  had  been  amputated 
for  senile  gangrene,  i.e.  mortification  due  to  senile  changes. 
Wonderful  to  relate,  the  worn-out  knee  joint  of  the  old 
man  became  part  and  parcel  of  the  young  woman,  and 
underwent  a  process  of  rejuvenescence  in  her  body. 

Dana  says  that  "  the  ner\'e  cell  is  solely  dependent 
on  a  proper  supply  of  blood,  and  dies  when  this  is  with- 
drawn, whilst  nerve  fibres  are  more  dependent  on  the 
trophic,  i.e.  nutritive  influence  of  the  nerve  cell,  of  which 


254      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

it  is  a  prolongation."  In  other  words,  the  preservation 
intact  of  the  nervous  system  depends  on  a  normal 
circulation,  and  any  pressure  on  blood  vessels  or  nerve 
cells  will  vitally  affect  those  tissues  which  govern  and 
control  the  life  processes  of  the  body. 

Now,  the  osteopath  declares  that  all  lesions  exert 
abnormal  pressure  on  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  In 
particular,  vertebral  and  rib  lesions  exert  direct  pressure 
on  the  spinal  nerves  as  they  emerge  from  the  inter- 
vertebral foramina,  or  on  the  sympathetic  ganglia  which 
lie  on  the  heads  of  the  ribs.  This  causes  congestion, 
inflammation,  and  degeneration  of  the  nerve  fibre,  with 
serious  effects  on  the  tissues.  He  therefore  rectifies 
those  lesions,  and  so  claims  to  bring  about  the  cure  of 
his  patients.  All  other  possible  causes  of  disease  are  in 
his  estimation  effects  of  some  lesion,  and  disappear  with 
the  reduction  of  the  lesion,  the  healing  power  of  nature 
resident  in  the  tissues  being  sufficient  to  restore  the  parts 
to  the  normal  whenever  it  gets  the  chance. 

The  "  treatment "  necessary  to  this  end  consists,  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases,  in  a  preliminary  stretching  of  the 
spinal  column  from  the  atlas  to  the  coccyx,  and  a  relaxing 
of  all  the  contracted  muscles  along  both  sides  of  the  spinal 
column,  in  the  cervical  region,  between  the  shoulder  blades 
and  in  the  limbs.  The  relaxation  of  the  muscles  is  brought 
about  in  two  ways :  (1)  by  firm  pressure  exerted  upon 
the  muscle  till  it  relaxes — a  slow  method  only  used  in 
acute  cases;  (2)  by  separating  the  points  of  origin 
and  insertion  of  the  muscle,  and  thus  stretching  it. 
Manipulation  of  the  belly  of  the  muscle  itself  by  pulling 
it  at  right  angles  to  its  fibres  is  also  resorted  to.  It  is 
essential  for  the  operator  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  anatomy  to  attain  good  results,  and  each  region  of  the 
body  has  its  own  special  forms  of  manipulation.     After 


EXERCISE  255 

this  relaxation  specific  treatment  is  applied  to  the  lesion 
by  the  ordinary  rules  of  surgery  :  (1)  Exaggeration  of  the 
lesion,  (2)  flexion  of  the  part,  (3)  rotation  and  pressure. 

A  perfect  cure  may  be  effected  by  the  first  treat- 
ment, but  as  a  rule  subsequent  "  treatments "  must  be 
administered  on  account  of  the  tendency  to  recurrence 
of  the  lesion,  and  they  should  be  continued  at  intervals 
until  a  permanent  cure  has  been  attained.  It  is 
surprising  what  good  results  are  effected  by  this  method 
of  treatment  in  the  most  diverse  conditions,  but  it  may  be 
argued  that  there  is  nothing  very  novel  in  all  this,  or  even 
that  what  is  novel  in  the  pathology  and  treatment  is  by 
no  means  true.  The  osteopath  professes  to  confine  his 
curative  measures  to  manipulation,  just  as  the  exponent 
of  the  Swedish  movement  system,  the  masseur,  and  the 
physical  culturist,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  each  magni- 
fies his  of&ce,  claiming  for  it  the  most  extraordinary 
results  and  putting  forward  its  practice,  by  implica- 
tion at  least,  as  the  sole  curative  method  of  real  efficacy. 
The  distinctive  feature  of  the  osteopath  is  that  he  claims 
that  all  disease  is  due  to  displaced  tissue,  the  replacement 
of  which  is  a  prerogative)  of  his  own  and  has  as  its  sequel 
a  perfect  cure.  So  intolerant  is  he  of  the  idea  that  his 
profession  is  only  a  branch  of  the  massage  or  any 
manipulative  or  rubbing  school,  that  he  is  frequently 
willing  to  forego  all  the  undoubted  advantages  derived 
from  relaxing  or  breaking  up  an  adhesion,  etc.,  and 
straightway  with  violence  sets  about  reducing  the  so- 
called  subluxation,  which  he  discovers  in  most  of  his  cases. 

I  have  had  four  years'  experience  of  the  practice  of  a  Per- 
this  method  of  treatment,  and  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  ^S^  °^ 
excellent  results  can  be  obtained  by  it  in  the  cure  of 
disease.     I  am  convinced,    however,  that  quite   95   per 
cent,  of  the  cures  brought  about  are  due  to  the  prelim- 
17 


256      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

inary  relaxation  of  the  muscles  and  the  breaking  down  of 
adhesions.  I  am  furthermore  certain  that  every  one  of 
the  movements  executed  for  this  purpose  is  simply 
appropriated  from  the  Swedish  system,  or  is  a  very  close 
imitation  of  it,  modified  so  that  it  can  be  carried  out  on  a 
simple  couch  in  one's  consulting-room  or  at  the  patient's 
home.  I  am  equally  certain  that  all  those  cases  could 
have  been  cured  by  many  other  methods.  When  this  has 
been  said,  however,  I  am  bound  to  add  that  the  other  5  per 
cent,  of  cures  are  really  brought  about  by  the  method 
which  the  osteopath  claims  peculiarly  as  his  own,  and 
that  in  the  past,  and  I  suppose  I  must  add  in  the  present, 
those  cases  were  neglected,  overlooked,  and  uncured  by 
the  medical  man,  and  as  a  consequence  in  this  country 
fell  into  the  hands  of  "  bone-setters,"  and  in  America  into 
those  of  the  osteopath. 

There  is  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  orthodox 
practitioner  to  regard  the  detection  of  "  vertebral 
subluxations  "  with  scepticism.  But  there  must  have  been 
some  virtue  in  the  methods  of  "  bone-setters,"  or  they 
would  not  have  obtained  patients,  and  I  know  that  there 
is  some  good  in  osteopaths  or  five  thousand  of  them 
would  not  exist  in  America,  with  all  the  privileges  and 
powers  of  the  medical  profession.  No  amount  of  theory 
will  convince  me  that  vertebral  subluxations  are  an  im- 
possibility, for  the  simple  reason  that  I  not  only  see  them 
occasionally  in  my  patients,  but  succeed  in  rectifying  them 
with  substantial  results.  This  is  to  be  specially  noted  in  the 
case  of  backache  of  one  kind  and  another,  for  which  in  the 
past  all  sorts  of  massage,  hot  bathings,  and  anti-rheumatic 
remedies  have  been  used  with  a  very  modified  success.  In 
the  great  majority  of  those  cases  there  will  be  found, 
on  examination,  a  displacement  of  one  of  the  vertebrae 
either  laterally,  anteriorly,  or  posteriorly,  causing  a  stretch- 


EXERCISE  257 

ing  of  the  ligaments  and  contraction,  and  therefore 
pain  in  the  muscles.  Small  rotators  of  the  spine  do  not 
exist  without  rotation  of  the  individual  vertebrae  being 
possible  to  some  extent,  and  muscles  between  the  trans- 
verse processes  and  spines  of  the  vertebrse  argue  a 
possible  approximation  of  those  parts  to  each  other. 

It  is  reasonable,  seeing  that  the  erect  posture  is 
maintained  by  a  distribution  of  the  strain  equally  over  all 
the  joints  of  the  vertebral  column,  to  infer  that,  when 
there  is  a  displacement  of  one  of  these  vertebrae,  too  much 
strain  will  consequently  fall  upon  the  ligaments  and 
muscles  between  it  and  its  neighbours,  and,  until  it  is 
replaced,  pain  will  be  likely  to  arise.  In  any  case,  it 
has  been  my  experience  that,  when  I  discovered  these 
lesions  and  rectified  them,  discarding  all  medicines,  my 
patients  recovered  even  after  they  had  swallowed  any 
amount  of  useless  medicine  for  years.  The  conservatism 
of  the  medical  profession  has  allowed  many  forms  of 
treatment,  like  massage,  osteopathy,  electricity,  and  Swed- 
ish exercises,  to  be  monopolised  by  irregular  practitioners 
when  they  should  have  been  captured  for  the  benefit 
of  rational  medicine  and  the  good  of  the  public. 

During  a  recent  trip  to  America  I  had  ample 
opportunity,  not  only  to  observe  the  practice  of  various 
osteopaths,  but  also  to  converse  with  them  on  the 
possibilities  of  their  work.  This  experience  has  only 
confirmed  the  views  to  which  I  have  already  given 
expression.  I  was  glad  to  find  that  the  highly  educated 
men  amongst  their  ranks  disclaimed  all  idea  of  discovering 
bony  lesions,  i.e.  subluxations,  in  any  large  percentage  of 
their  patients,  and  they  were  quick  to  admit  that  their 
system  was  by  no  means  the  only  method  of  treatment  of 
value.  They  inclined  to  the  idea,  however,  that  it  suited 
more    cases    than    any    other    method,  although  it  un- 


258      THE  LAWS  OF  IJFE  AND  HEALTH 

doubtedly  had  its  limitations.  I  was  glad  to  hear  this,  as 
the  enthusiastic  osteopath  is  apt  to  imagine  it  is  the  only- 
useful  mode  of  treatment  yet  discovered. 

Another  method  of  inducing  a  favourable  influence 
on  muscular  condition  is  what  is  termed  "  tension "  or 
"  static  "  exercise,  and  consists  in  contracting  the  muscle 
group  without  bringing  the  points  of  origin  and  in- 
sertion any  nearer.  It  produces  all  the  good  effect  of 
exercise  without  in  any  way  increasing  the  tissue  waste, 
or  exhausting  the  nervous  system  of  the  heart.  A  little 
practice  will  soon  enable  any  muscle  of  the  body  to  be 
"  tensed,"  and  a  minute  may  be  profitably  spent  at  this 
method  of  clearing  out  the  products  of  fatigue,  three  or 
four  times  a  day. 

To  those  who  are  unable  to  afford  the  time  or  energy 
for  exercise,  this  method  affords  an  advantageous  way  of 
obtaining  a  feeling  of  vigour  and  fitness,  much  greater 
than  could  be  expected  from  its  simplicity. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  consider  shortly  the  best 
method  whereby  a  business  man  may  get  all  the  value 
of  exercise. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  in  his  younger  days  he  has 
undergone  a  course  of  physical  culture  for  development, 
but,  whether  this  be  so  or  not,  from  five  to  ten  minutes 
each  morning  should  be  spent  in  systematic  exercise  on 
a  plan  which  will  be  detailed  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
Its  great  value  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  is  composed 
of  relaxing  and  contracting  movements,  massage,  and 
active  osteopathic  movements  for  retaining  the  elasticity 
and  correcting  any  defective  positions  of  the  bones  of  the 
body. 

Meanwhile,  it  must  be  said  that  most  men  fancy  they 
get  a  sufficiency  of  muscular  exercise  in  their  daily  work, 
and,  if  quantity  of  exertion  were  the  sole  consideration. 


EXERCISE  259 

we  should  not  need  to  join  issue  with  them  on  such 
a  statement.  Nevertheless  (apart  from  the  prescribed 
course  which  follows),  some  recreative  exercise  will  be 
found  of  great  importance  in  enabling  them  to  retain 
their  health  and  activity,  both  of  body  and  mind.  The 
most  natural  form  of  exercise  is  walking,  not  only 
because  it  is  the  normal  form  of  progression  for  human 
beings,  but  because  in  it  are  employed  the  largest  muscles 
of  the  body.  From  half  an  hour  to  three  hours  should 
be  spent  in  walking  in  the  open  air  each  day,  and  if  it 
be  not  engaged  in  too  soon  after  a  meal,  it  can  be 
practised  in  all  states  of  the  weather.  If  in  health,  it 
is  indeed  important  that  weather  conditions  should  be 
ignored,  as  a  period  of  cessation  from  this  exercise  is 
usually  followed  by  disinclination  to  indulge  in  it  again. 
It  is  especially  valuable  for  old  men,  because  there  is  no 
risk  of  straining  any  of  their  internal  organs,  and  a  love 
of  walking  engenders  an  interest  in  outdoor  life,  with  all 
its  vitalising  influences.  At  the  age  of  sixty-five  the 
pace  should  not  be  greater  than  two  miles  an  hour,  so  as 
to  obviate  the  tendency  to  heart  strain. 

Those  in  good  health  should  endeavour  to  arrange 
a  fairly  long  walk  once  a  week,  and  during  the  summer 
holidays,  after  a  preliminary  training,  a  course  of  walking 
and  climbing  will  best  serve  the  purpose  of  re-invigorating 
the  jaded  powers  of  the  exhausted  city  worker. 

Walking  is  the  basis  of  all  the  really  valuable  re- 
creative forms  of  exercise,  and  so  we  find  that  golf,  lawn 
tennis,  lawn  bowls,  croquet,  curling,  skating,  etc.,  have 
each  their  devotees  according  to  their  individual  fancy. 
So  long  as  the  competitive  spirit  does  not  enter  too 
vigorously  into  the  game,  the  favoured  sport  will  be 
calculated  to  intensify  all  the  good  effects  of  the  walking 
or  running,  which  is,  after  all,  the  secret  of  its  value. 


26o      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Cycling  is  preferred  by  some,  and  should  be  included  in 
the  above  category,  as  should  also  gardening  and  other 
hobbies  involving  physical  exertion. 

The  undoubted  value  of  motoring  depends  upon  a 
different  principle — that  of  vibration,  which  stimulates 
the  whole  muscular,  circulatory,  nervous,  and  lymphatic 
system,  this  being  a  fairly  effective  substitute  for  active 
exertion,  whilst  the  quick  rush  through  the  life-giving 
air  encourages  deep  breathing,  and  favours  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  ansemia  so  common  in  the  town  bred. 

Horseback  exercise  is  possible  only  for  the  few,  but 
combines  the  value  of  motoring  and  cycling  with  less 
strain  than  is  incidental  to  the  latter. 

Military  exercises  are  a  most  valuable  method  of 
training  the  bodily  powers  to  their  highest  state  of 
efficiency,  and  we  may  look  forward  to  the  time  when 
some  form  of  compulsory  military  exercise  will  introduce 
what  is  after  all  the  sovereign  remedy  for  the  physical 
deterioration  of  the  people  of  this  country. 

Flan  for  Morning  Physical  Culture. — About 
thirty  minutes  before  sitting  down  to  breakfast,  and 
while  still  in  bed,  for  two  or  three  minutes  practise  the 
following  movements : — 

(1)  Eemove  the  pillow  from  the  head,  and  place  it 
under  the  small  of  the  back.  Then  relax  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body,  limbs,  head,  and  neck  in  their  turn,  and 
remain  in  that  lax  position  for  a  full  minute. 

(2)  Whilst  drawing  a  few  long  breaths,  massage  with 
the  right  hand  the  front  and  sides  of  the  neck,  so  as  to 
improve  the  development  of  the  thyroid  gland,  and  thus 
help  to  postpone  that  puffiness  of  hands  and  face,  dry 
skin,  falling  out  of  the  hair,  and  inactivity  of  mind  so 
common  in  senile  decay,  and  which  are  apt  to  appear 
long  before  their  necessary  time.     It    is    important   to 


EXERCISE  261 

remember  that  the  two  pneumogastric  nerves  pass  down 
each  side  of  the  neck,  and  that  this  massage  serves  to 
stimulate  them,  and  so  exerts  a  wholesome  influence  on 
the  parts  controlled  by  them — stomach,  bowels,  etc. 

(3)  Slowly  and  thoroughly  contract  the  abdominal 
muscles  from  above  downwards,  thus  exerting  pressure 
on  the  abdominal  contents,  tending  to  empty  the  colon, 
and  removing  congestion  from  the  liver,  blood  vessels, 
bowels,  etc.  This  should  be  done  twenty  or  thirty  times 
in  succession,  and,  before  beginning,  a  long  deep  breath 
should  be  taken,  and  the  air  gradually  exhaled  dm-ing 
the  exercise,  and  then  the  contraction  should  be  sustained 
for  a  few  seconds  during  the  full  and  prolonged  expiration. 

(4)  Massage  of  the  Colon. — Press  the  flat  of  the  right 
hand  deeply  but  gently  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen  on  the  right  side,  and  continue  this  movement 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  colon,  i.e.  first 
straight  up  till  the  ribs  are  felt,  then  across  the  abdomen 
from  the  right  to  left,  and  then  down  the  left  side  to  the 
groin.  The  left  hand  may  also  be  used  in  alternation 
with  the  right.  (This  is  a  capital  method  for  obviating 
any  tendency  to  constipation.)  This  exercise  may  be 
made  more  valuable  by  raising  the  hips  on  pillows,  a  foot 
above  the  level  of  the  head. 

(5)  Slowly  but  firmly  raise  the  feet  until  the  lower 
limbs  are  at  right  angles  with  the  body,  the  knees  being 
unbent.  Eetain  this  position  for  two  or  three  seconds, 
then  slowly  lower  them  to  the  bed.  Eepeat.  (This 
exercise  may  be  varied  by  raising  the  thigh  with  the 
knee  bent  till  it  touches  the  chest.) 

After  performing  these  movements,  jump  briskly  out 
of  bed,  dressed  in  pyjamas,  although  in  the  winter  it  is 
wise  in  addition  to  don  socks  and  rubber-soled  shoes 
whilst  engaging  in  the  following  exercises : — 


262      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

(1)  Stand  erect — heels  together — feet  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees — arms  fully  extended  by  the  side  of  the  body — 
■palms  to  front.  Eapidly  bend  the  forearm  on  the  upper 
arm  till  the  fingers  touch  the  shoulders.  Then  allow  the 
arms  to  fall  backward  into  their  original  position,  in  full 
relaxation.  Some  may  find  it  easier  to  do  this  exercise 
one  arm  after  the  other,  i.e.  alternating  the  contractions 
and  relaxations.  The  liiceps  is  the  chief  muscle  involved 
in  this  exercise. 

(2)  Same  position.  Without  bending  the  elbows, 
carry  the  arms  strongly  as  far  up  and  back  as  possible, 
keeping  them  parallel,  thus  contracting  the  triceps. 

(3)  Same  position,  but  thumbs  to  the  front  without 
bending  the  elbows.  Eapidly  raise  the  arms  to  the  side, 
about  a  foot  above  the  level  of  the  shoulders,  thus 
contracting  the  deltoids.  The  arms  should  then  be 
allowed  to  drop  back  to  the  sides  easily. 

(4)  Same  position  as  No.  3.  Eapidly  raise  the  arms 
to  the  side  and  above  the  head  till  the  backs  of  the 
hands  meet.  Eeturn  to  original  position,  and  repeat. 
Take  a  long  breath  as  hands  are  raised. 

(5)  Same  position.  Begin  movement  by  swinging 
arms  up  to  the  left  side  as  far  as  possible,  palms  out- 
wards, and  face  in  the  same  direction.  Then  swing  arms 
in  front  of  the  body  to  a  similar  position  on  the  right 
side,  keeping  the  feet  firm  all  the  while.  The  hips 
should  likewise  be  kept  firm  as  far  as  possible,  for  by 
this  means  a  fuller  rotation  will  be  obtained  in  the 
spinal  column. 

(6)  Stand  erect — arms  extended  at  sides — thumbs  to 
front.  Swing  each  arm  simultaneously  across  the  front 
of  the  body,  bringing  it  into  an  uplifted  position  at  the 
side — upper  arms  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  shoulders 
— forearms  almost  perpendicular,  and  all  the  muscles  of 


Exercise  1.— The  biceps  and  other 
muscles  in  the  front  of  the  upper 
arm  are  developed  by  this 
exercise. 


Exercise  2. — The  triceps  at  the 
back  of  the  upper  arm  is  chiefly 
developed  by  this  exercise. 


Exercise  3. — The  deltoid  muscles  which  give  roundness,  support, 
and  protection  to  the  shoulder  are  developed  by  this  exercise. 


1 

\ 

Exercise  5. — The  chest  and 
muscles  of  the  trunk  are 
not  only  developed  by  this 
exercise,  but  elasticity  of 
the  spinal  column — which  is 
the  key  to  all  activity — is 
obtained. 


Exercise  6.— This  is  largely  a  relaxing- 
exercise,  but  in  addition  gives  an 
opportunity  for  specially  deep  breathing 
and  all-round  chest  expansion. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 

Hav-Tossing  Exercise. 

Exercise  7.— This  develops  all  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  and  is 
especially  useful  for  the  full  expansion,  especially  at  the  apex,  of 
each  lung  in  turn.  The  weakest  people  may  continue  this 
exercise  without  undue  fatigue  for  an  hour  or  more. 


EXERCISE  263 

the  upper  limb  relaxed  except  those  at  the  shoulder. 
Eepeat  by  swinging  the  arms  in  front  of  the  body, 
crossing  them,  and  returning  to  position  described. 
With  each  movement  the  knees  should  be  bent,  and  the 
back  in  the  lumbar  region  curved  forward  as  much  as 
possible.  A  long,  deep  breath  should  be  taken  with 
each  movement. 

(7)  Stand  with  the  feet  apart  and  knees  straight  (Fig. 
III.).  Swing  the  arms  round  to  the  left  for  an  impetus 
(Fig.  I.)  for  the  upward  swing,  by  which  they  will  be 
carried  past  the  front  of  the  body,  upwards  and  overhead. 
One  arm,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  bent  at  the  elbow  and  falls 
over  the  chest,  the  hand  resting  upon  the  shoulder  of  the 
opposite  arm ;  the  other  arm  is  carried  straight  upwards 
and  slightly  backwards,  while  the  trunk  is  twisted  round 
somewhat  (Fig.  II.).  'Now  reverse  the  movement,  bringing 
the  arms  to  the  sides,  and  relaxing  for  a  moment.  Then 
swing  the  arms  a  little  to  the  right  to  get  the  impetus 
to  carry  them  upwards  to  the  opposite  side.  Eepeat  the 
alternate  movements  until  slightly  tired,  then  rest  and 
Ijreathe  regularly  and  fully  for  a  few  minutes.  (Make 
the  hips  firm  and  tense  when  the  arms  are  thrown 
upwards  overhead,  and  relax  all  the  muscles  as  the  third 
]Dosition  is  assumed.  This  is  important  to  get  the  most 
out  of  the  exercise.) 

For  this  exercise  and  one  or  two  of  the  others,  and 
for  all  the  illustrations  of  the  exercises,  I  am  indebted 
to  my  friend,  Mr.  W.  M.  Scott,  Superintendent  of  the 
Leicester  Sanitarium. 

(8)  Stand  erect,  same  position  as  last,  but  knees 
lightly  bent. 

(«)  Catch  back  of  head  with  both  hands,  and  sharply 
press  it  forwards  with  a  nodding  movement,  the  head 
and  neck  remaining  perfectly  passive  in  the  hands. 


264      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

(&)  Hands  by  side — twist  head  strongly  to  the  left — 
repeat  the  movement  to  the  right  side,  relaxing  all  the 
muscles  for  a  second,  and  dropping  the  head  forward  as 
the  face  comes  to  the  front. 

(c)  Eotate  head  by  bending  it  first  backwards,  then 
sidewards,  then  forwards,  allowing  it  to  move  about  by 
its  own  weight,  first  in  one  direction,  then  in  the  other. 

All  these  movements  keep  the  cervical  region  elastic, 
mobile,  and  free  from  tendency  to  adhesions.  They 
should  be  repeated  from  six  to  twelve  times  each. 

(9)  Same  position  as  No.  7.  Clench  fists,  and  extend 
arms  straight  from  shoulders  to  the  sides  at  right  angles 
to  the  body.  Now,  keeping  arms  and  upper  part  of  the 
body  in  this  position,  twist  the  body  rapidly  to  the  right, 
endeavouring  to  face  right  about  to  the  back.  Eepeat 
the  movement  to  the  left.  (This  movement  keeps  the 
dorsal  part  of  the  vertebral  column  elastic  and  mobile.) 
The  feet  may  either  be  kept  quite  firm  on  the  floor,  or 
permitted  to  move  with  the  swing  of  the  body.  Greater 
rotation  of  the  spine  is  allowed  by  the  latter  position  of 
the  feet. 

(10)  Same  position  as  No.  8.  Clench  fists,  and  push 
them  into  either  side  of  the  spine  at  the  level  of  the  last 
rib.  Now  make  the  lumbar  curve  first  more  concave, 
then  straighten,  and  repeat. 

This  frees  the  vertebra  in  the  lumbar  region,  and 
enables  the  proper  curve  to  be  maintained. 

(11)  Same  position  as  No.  7.  Bend  upper  part  of 
body  somewhat  to  left  side.  Eeach  left  hand  round  to 
right  side  at  level  of  twelfth  rib,  and,  whilst  taking  deep 
inhalations,  rotate  the  right  arm  sharply,  and  at  each 
deep  breath  press  hand  on  the  rib  and  reach  up  to  the 
rib  above.  When  the  second  rib  has  been  reached, 
reverse  the  rotation  of  the  right  arm,  and  descend  with 


Exercise  9.— This  is  a  poAveiful  exercise  for  the 
development  of  the  trunk  muscles,  especially 
those  Avhich  hold  the  hody  erect. 


Exercise  11.— This  is  not  only  an  excellent  means 
of  developing  the  chest,  but  keeps  the  ribs 
properly  spaced,  and  the  backbone  strong 
and  limber.  (The  body  should  be  bent  much 
farther  towards  the  side  than  is  shown  in  the 
plate.) 


3rcl  Position. 
Exercise  13.— Excellent  for  the  development  of  the  lateral 
abdominal  and  spinal  muscles. 


'■^^■^9^1 

wmmmmmmmm^Bmammm 

Fig.  1. 

^^^^ 

Fig.  2. 
Exercise  14.— This  gives  full  expansion  of  the  chest,  and 
powerful  spinal  muscles. 


Exercise  15. — Expands  chest,  strengthens  abdominal 
and  spinal  muscles. 


EXERCISE  265 

the   left    hand    to    the   twelfth    rib    again,   rib    by   rib. 
Keverse  hands  and  process. 

(This  is  an  excellent  means  of  keeping  the  ribs  in 
their  proper  position  and  with  the  requisite  amount  of 
space  between  them.) 

(12)  Same  position  as  Xo.  9,  but  hands  outstretched 
at  right  angles  to  shoulders,  palms  upwards.  Without 
bending  elbows,  rotate  the  arms  at  the  shoulders  briskly 
from  front  to  back  eight  times,  and  then  in  the  reverse 
direction.  Then,  with  backs  of  hands  uppermost,  repeat 
the  exercise. 

Now  attend  to  the  preparation  of  the  bath,  and  com- 
plete exercises  as  follows  : — 

(13)  Same  position  as  No.  9,  palms  downwards,  bend 
over  to  the  right  as  far  as  possible,  keeping  knees  stiff. 
Then  bend  the  knee  and  hip  joints,  touching  the  floor 
with  the  right  hand.  Eise  smartly  to  first  position,  and 
repeat  to  left. 

(14)  Kneel  on  floor,  hands  on  hips,  knees  nine  inches 
apart,  toes  tmmed  under.  Slowly  arch  spine  backwards 
as  far  as  possible.  Eesume  position,  and  repeat.  It  is 
important  in  this  exercise  to  see  that  the  spine  is 
"  arched  "  in  its  full  length,  and  not  simply  "  bent "  in 
the  lumbar  region. 

(15)  Same  position  as  ISTo.  1.  Now  swing  the  arms, 
with  elbows  stiff,  straight  above  the  head.  Bend  smartly 
and  put  the  palms  of  the  hands  on  floor,  outside  and  in 
front  of  the  toes.  Spring  lightly  backward  to  the  full 
extent  of  the  body  on  to  the  toes.  Bend  elbows,  and 
approximate  the  face  to  the  floor.  Now  straighten 
elbows,  elevate  the  hips,  and  regain  first  position  smartly, 
i.e.  with  feet  between  the  hands.  Then  spring  to 
"  attention,"  jumping  lightly,  and  bring  the  arms  smartly 
backward.     If  this  is  foimd  to  be  too  difficult  at  first, 


266      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

then  regain  the  upright  position  by  stepping  out  with 
either  foot. 

Each  of  the  above  fifteen  exercises  may  be  repeated 
from  six  to  twelve  or  more  times  according  to  inclination 
and  strength. 

A  long  deep  breath  should  be  taken  between  each 
exercise. 

Now  strip  to  the  skin,  use  the  flesh  gloves  as  directed 
in  Section  on  "  Cleansing,"  and  thereafter  take  the  bath. 

Pkactical  Summaey. 

1.  Eegular  exercise  should  be  taken  every  day,  both 
for  recreation  and  development. 

2.  Daily  exercise  is  admitted  to  be  necessary,  but 
is  nevertheless  neglected.  Watching  football  matches 
and  other  forms  of  athletic  sports  is  not  an  adequate 
substitute  for  personal  exercise. 

3.  During  the  growth  of  the  body  physical  culture 
should  be  used  for  development,  as  also  to  counteract 
the  evil  effects  of  heredity. 

4.  As  our  occupations  tend  to  make  us  one-sided, 
a  short  system  of  physical  culture  is  wisely  continued 
throughout  life. 

5.  Such  a  system,  to  be  useful,  should  be  compre- 
hensive, brief,  and  capable  of  easy  application. 

6.  The  valuable  effects  of  exercise  are  easily  recog- 
nised, improving  the  wind,  strength,  the  digestion,  and  the 
mental  capacity,  and,  when  not  overdone,  expelling  the 
acid  waste  products  of  fatigue  through  the  skin,  bowels, 
and  kidneys. 

7.  Wrong  positions  in  standing,  sitting,  and  walking 
are  apt  to  cause  round  shoulders,  lateral  and  other 
curvatures  of  the  spine,  which  can  only  be  prevented  by 


EXERCISE  267 

adopting  right  positions  and  strengthening  the  muscles 
by  exercise. 

8.  The  gymnasium  is  the  right  place  for  teaching  the 
best  methods  of  developing  the  body,  and  local  authorities 
should  be  empowered  to  build  properly  fitted  gymnasia, 
and  all  young  people  shouM  be  compelled  to  attend  them, 

9.  The  basis  of  all  physical  culture  is  the  Ling  System, 
which  can  be  adapted  to  every  condition  of  life. 

10.  Under  the  age  of  seven  years,  play  suffices  for 
all  purposes.  Between  seven  and  fourteen,  three  hours 
per  week  should  be  spent  in  gymnastic  exercises.  From 
fifteen  to  twenty-five,  the  sexes  should  be  separated,  the 
exercises  specialised,  and  increased  in  severity.  From 
twenty-five  to  the  end  of  life,  work  provides  all  the 
exercise  necessary,  if  from  five  to  ten  minutes  be  spent 
each  morning  in  physical  culture. 

11.  Physical  deterioration  may  be  induced  by  over- 
exercise.  Strong  men  are  born,  not  made.  Emulation 
of  feats  of  strength  often  results  in  a  breakdown. 

12.  One  must  always  pay  the  penalty  of  excessive 
exercise  of  the  muscles.  Health  is  the  proper  objective 
of  all  exercise,  and  training,  not  straining,  is  what  we 
should  strive  after. 

13.  Excessive  mental  and  physical  tension,  with 
constant  strain  of  business  worries  and  anxieties,  create 
a  necessity  for  relaxing  exercises. 

14.  Massage  is  passive  exercise  of  the  muscles  and 
tissues. 

15.  Osteopathy  owes  much  of  its  undoubtedly 
beneficial  effects  to  passive  relaxation  of  the  muscles. 
It  is  a  valuable  method  of  treatment,  especially  in 
deformities  and  displacements  of  all  kinds. 

16.  "Tension"  or  "Static"  exercises  consist  in 
contracting  the  muscles  without  any  visible  effort. 


268      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

17.  Walking  is  the  basis  of  all  the  best  forms  of 
recreative  exercise,  and  should  be  practised  in  the  open 
air  from  half  to  three  hours  daily.  If  the  spine  be  well 
arched  according  to  its  proper  curves,  the  lower  ribs  well 
expanded,  the  abdomen  well  tucked  in,  the  back  of  the 
neck  touching  the  collar,  it  is  of  itself  a  perfect  form  of 
exercise. 

18.  A  short  system  of  morning  physical  culture, 
embracing  massage,  osteopathy,  relaxing  and  contracting 
movements,  is  suggested. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

CLEANLINESS. 

LAW  VII. — "A  dally  bath  of  some  kind  is  an 
absolute  necessity." 

THE  much-hackneyed  phrase,  "  Cleanliness  is  next  to  The  Ubi- 
godliness,"  no   doubt   owed  its  origin  to  the  fact  ^^^*°^^^ 
that    godliness    is    only    another    name    for    holiness — 
wholeness  or  health,  and  that  uncleanliness  is  absolutely 
incompatible  with  health. 

The  greatest  surgical  discovery  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  dirt,  matter  in  the  wrong  place,  which 
attacks  with  detrimental  effect  every  breach  of  the 
continuity  of  the  human  skin.  The  greatest  medical 
discovery  that  will  be  made  in  this  century  will  be  the 
accurate  details  of  the  morbific  ravages  of  dust. 

It  takes  at  least  two  hours  in  fresh  open  air  each 
day  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  dust  we  inhale  in 
dining-room,  drawing-room,  bedroom,  workshop,  city  street, 
and  country  road  ahke,  without  estimating  the  wear  and 
tear  of  the  tissues  due  to  Nature's  excretory  effort  to 
intercept  this  terrible  enemy.  If  the  human  eye  had 
only  lenses  as  powerful  as  the  corresponding  parts  in  the 
eyes  of  the  common  house-fly,  we  would  be  horrified  to 
find  that  not  only  was  our  clothing  Hterally  saturated 

with  dust,  but  the   skin    in    every  part   of    our  bodies 

269 


270      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

absolutely  coated  with  a  thick  layer  of  tliis  death- 
dealing  impurity.  It  behoves  us,  therefore,  to  study  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  human  skin,  so  as  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  deleterious  effects  of  un- 
cleanliness,  and  the  best  methods  to  be  adopted  for 
circumventing  them. 

The  skin  consists  of  two  layers — 

(1)  A  superficial  non-vascular  thin  one,  called  the 

epidermis. 

(2)  A  deeper,  thicker,  very  vascular  layer,  called 

the  dermis,  or  true  skin. 

The  epidermis  separates  quite  readily  from  the  true 
sldn,  and  is  the  part  which  is  raised  when  a  blister 
forms,  and  which  thickens  when  much  friction  takes 
place,  forming  corns  and  callosities.  Any  one  who  has 
snipped  a  blister,  or  cut  a  corn,  knows  that  the  epidermis 
is  insensible,  and  this  is  because  it  is  formed  of  layers  of 
stratified  epithelial  cells  without  blood  vessels,  and  united 
by  a  cement  -  like  substance.  Four  layers  may  be 
identified ;  the  outer  two  being  composed  of  a  horny- 
like  substance,  and  together  forming  the  cuticle,  and  the 
lower  two  being  softer, — in  the  dark  races  containing 
pigment, — and  called  the  mucous  layer,  or  rete  mucosum. 

This  pigment  is  not  found  in  the  skin,  but  is  carried 
by  wandering  cells  from  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  and 
this  is  the  reason  that  a  piece  of  white  skin  grafted  on 
a  negro  soon  becomes  black.  The  chief  function  of  the 
epidermis  is  to  give  protection  to  the  true  skin,  and  to 
prevent  it  from  becoming  dry,  inelastic,  and  unpliable. 
The  deeper  mucous  layer  is  constantly  forming  the  outer 
horny  scales,  and  these  in  turn  are  continually  being 
shed  by  a  natural  process,  aided  by  the  friction  of  the 
clothes  and  bathing.  This  process  is  easily  seen  on  the 
scalp  of    persons  who   neglect    the   daily  brushing  and 


CLEANLINESS  271 

shampooing,  so  essential  to  its  cleanliness,  and  the  on 
skin  of  people  whose  ablutions  are  too  infrequent. 

The  pigment  cells  in  the  deepest  layer  vary  in 
number,  and  appear  to  be  formed  more  profusely  under 
the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  so  that  even  among  the 
fair-skinned  races  tan  and  freckles  are  common  in  the 
summer-time.  Sometimes  this  pigment-forming  function 
ceases,  and  patches  absolutely  free  from  it  appear  on  the 
back  of  the  hands,  or  a  condition  arises  in  which  no 
pigment  is  found  at  all,  this  latter  being  called  albinism. 
The  epidermis  is  pierced  by  the  tubes  of  the  sweat 
glands  and  the  little  pits  or  follicles  in  which  the 
hairs  lie. 

The  dermis,  or  true  skin,  is  quite  covered  on  its 
surface  by  little  hillocks  or  papillse,  and  on  the  palms 
of  the  hands  and  fingers  and  soles  of  the  feet  these 
occur  in  regular  furrows,  with  grooves  between  them. 
These  constitute  themselves  into  whorls  and  other 
characteristic  forms  which  are  peculiar  to  the  individual, 
and  are  utilised  in  some  countries  as  thumb-prints  to 
mark  documents  in  lieu  of  a  signature,  and  in  the  police 
courts  of  this  country  as  finger-prints  wherewith  to 
identify  criminals.  The  epidermis  fits  accurately  into 
these  grooves  by  sending  down  prolongations  to  fill  them 
up.  Most  of  the  papillae  contain  a  looped  capillary  blood 
vessel  and  a  nerve-ending,  whilst  many  of  them  contain 
specialised  touch-corpuscles,  which  are  most  numerous 
on  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

It  is  because  of  these  nerve-endings  that  sensations  of 
pain,  touch,  temperature,  and  pressure  are  able  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  brain,  and  by  means  of  a  delicate 
instrument  it  is  possible  to  measure  the  degree  of 
sensitiveness  in  each  of  the  parts — the  tip  of  the  tongue 
and  the  ends   of    the   fingers   being  the  most  sensitive 


272      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

regions  of  the  hodj.  It  is  impossible  to  prick  the  skin 
with  the  finest  needle  without  injuring  a  capillary  and 
causing  blood  to  exude. 

Beneath  the  true  skin  there  is  a  layer  of  fat,  which 
gives  a  roundness  to  the  body  outline,  and  with  the  skin 
not  only  serves  as  a  protection  against  violence,  but 
prevents  the  loss  of  too  much  heat. 

In  the  true  skin  are  to  be  found  two  kinds  of  glands, 
the  sebaceous,  or  oil-producing  glands,  and  the  sudori- 
parous, or  sweat  glands.  The  sebaceous  glands  are  to 
be  found  on  all  parts  of  the  skin  except  the  palm  of 
the  hand  and  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  are  especially 
abundant  on  the  face  and  sides  of  the  nose,  back  of  the 
neck,  and  shoulders.  They  usually  open  by  a  duct  into 
a  hair  follicle,  although  in  some  places  they  open  on  the 
free  surface  of  the  skin. 

They  look  like  small  sacs  when  examined  under  the 
microscope,  are  more  superficial  than  the  sweat  glands, 
and  secrete  a  greasy  substance  called  sebum,  for  the 
purpose  of  lubricating  the  skin  and  keeping  it  in  a  soft 
and  pliable  condition. 

When  the  skin  is  not  kept  perfectly  clean  the  mouths 
of  these  glands  become  blocked  with  dirt,  and  "  black- 
heads "  make  their  appearance,  and  when  these  become 
inflamed  by  reason  of  putrefaction  of  their  contents,  the 
unsightly  condition  called  "  acne "  arises.  Without  a 
daily  cleansing  warm  bath,  it  is  impossible  to  remove 
the  oily  layer,  with  its  innumerable  microbes  which 
accumulate  in  the  skin,  and  this  is  not  only  a  prolific 
source  of  disease,  but  it  is  the  cause  of  that  unpleasant 
smell  associated  with  dirty  people,  called  the  odor 
humanus.  The  sebaceous  glands  prevent  injurious 
friction  of  opposing  surfaces,  and  generally  protect  the 
body  from  moisture. 


CLEANLINESS  273 

The  sweat  glands  consist  of  little  tubes  ending  in  a 
coil  on  the  under  surface  of  the  true  skin,  and  at  varying 
depths  in  the  subcutaneous  fatty  tissue.  The  tube 
winds  in  a  wavy  manner  through  the  true  skin,  and  in 
a  corkscrew  or  spiral  manner  through  the  epidermis, 
where  it  ends  with  a  free,  somewhat  trumpet-shaped 
mouth.  The  glands  are  very  numerous  and  large  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  sole  of  the  foot,  armpit,  and  forehead, 
and  the  openings  of  the  ducts  are  popularly  called  pores. 

There  are  said  to  be  two  and  a  half  millions  scattered 
over  the  skin,  and,  if  placed  end  to  end,  they  would 
cover  a  distance  of  nearly  thirty  miles.  These  glands 
secrete  sweat,  although  an  oily  or  fatty  substance  is 
mixed  with  the  sweat,  and  serves  to  lubricate  such  parts 
as  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet,  where 
there  are  no  sebaceous  glands. 

The    functions    of     the    skin    are:     (1)    protective ; Tbe  Work 
(2)    excretory ;    (3)    heat-regulating ;    (4)    tactile ;    and  g[[^^ 
(5)  absorptive. 

(1)  Protective,  by  forming  a  covering  to  the  whole 
body,  in  addition  to  which  the  soft  cushion  of  fat  acts  as 
a  buffer,  warding  off  external  injury. 

(2)  Excretory,  and  therefore  blood-purifying.  This 
is  brought  about  in  three  different  ways : — 

(«)  By  actual  respiration  through  the  tubes  of  the 
sweat  glands,  it  really  absorbs  a  small  amount  of  oxygen, 
and  gives  off  a  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  urea,  and 
salts,  varying  with  the  bodily  activities.  This  function 
is  not  so  important  with  us  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  cold- 
blooded "  animals.  If  the  skin  of  a  frog  be  varnished, 
or  covered  with  oil,  the  creature  dies  sooner  than  if  its 
lungs  were  ligatured.  If  the  skin  of  a  warm-blooded 
animal  be  varnished,  the  animal  dies  after  a  time,  if  the 
temperature  be  not  kept  up.     This,  however,  does  not 


274      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

take  place  if  the  temperature  be  maintained,  and  even 
a  human  being  has  been  covered  with  an  impermeable 
coat  of  tar  for  the  cure  of  skin  disease  without  any  risk 
to  life.  It  can  only  have  been  from  the  lack  of 
artificial  means  to  maintain  the  body  heat  that  the 
little  boy  who  was  covered  with  a  coat  of  gilt  and  made 
to  take  part  in  a  procession  in  Eome,  in  days  long  gone 
by,  met  with  his  death.  It  certainly  was  not  due  to  the 
obstruction  of  the  sweating  orifices. 

(h)  By  the  secretion  of  sebum.  This  is  composed 
chiefly  of  fatty  matter,  soap,  and  some  salts,  and  is  meant 
to  lubricate  the  skin  and  hairs. 

(c)  By  the  secretion  of  sweat,  which  takes  place  in 
the  coils  of  the  sweat  glands.  When  it  is  small  in 
amount,  it  is  evaporated  in  reaching  the  cutaneous 
surface,  consisting  as  it  does  chiefly  of  water.  When, 
however,  the  secretion  is  increased  or  the  evaporation 
prevented  by  heavy  clothing  or  excessive  humidity  of 
the  external  atmosphere,  drops  of  sweat  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  skin.  The  former  is  called  insensible, 
and  the  latter  sensible  perspiration.  There  is  99  per 
cent,  of  water  in  sweat,  and  the  remaining  constituents 
are  chiefly  fat,  fatty  acids,  and  salt. 

An  average  of  40  oz.  is  excreted  in  this  way  every 
day.  The  amount  is  increased  by  a  rise  in  the  sur- 
rounding temperature,  by  muscular  exertion,  by  excessive 
consumption  of  fluids,  especially  hot  fluids,  and  by  certain 
drugs  called  sudorifics  and  diaphoretics.  When  sweating 
is  active,  then  the  kidneys  separate  less  water,  and  vice 
versa.  Hence  in  summer  the  urine  is  concentrated, 
whereas  in  winter  it  is  more  dilute.  Emotional  con- 
ditions likewise  increase  the  amount  of  sweat,  and  this 
presupposes  special  nerves  controlling  the  function. 
When    sweating    is    abnormally    increased    it    is    called 


CLEANLINESS  275 

hyperidrosis,  and  this  occurs  through  the  influence  of 
the  nerves  in  easily  excited  persons,  chiefly  on  the  head 
and  hands.  Sweating  of  blood  is  not  unknown,  and 
occurs  fairly  often  in  yellow  fever.  Foul  sweat,  or 
bromidrosis,  is  due  to  the  decomposition  of  sweat  brought 
about  by  a  special  microbe,  many  varieties  of  which  live 
on  the  epidermis  and  fine  hairs. 

(3)  Heat-Begulating. — This  is  effected  not  only  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  sweat,  but  by  radiation  and  con- 
duction from  the  skin.  When  the  surrounding  air  is 
much  warmer  than  the  body,  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
skin  dilate,  free  perspiration  takes  place,  and  by  its 
evaporation  the  body  becomes  cooled.  If  the  air  be 
already  full  of  moisture,  this  evaporation  is  very  difficult, 
and  we  suffer  more  from  the  heat  than  if  it  were  dry. 
This  is  a  common  experience,  and  also  explains  why  a 
much  higher  temperature  can  be  borne  in  a  Turkish 
bath,  where  the  air  is  dry,  than  in  a  Eussian  vapour  bath. 
When  the  air  is  cooler  than  the  body,  the  blood  vessels 
contract  and  prevent  the  loss  of  heat,  the  blood  being 
driven  internally  to  supply  more  important  organs.  Of 
100  units  of  heat  produced,  2-|-  per  cent,  are  lost  in 
heating  food  and  drink,  the  same  amount  in  heating  the 
air  inspired,  nearly  15  per  cent,  in  evaporation,  and 
80  per  cent,  by  conduction  and  radiation. 

(4)  Tactile. — The  sensations   of    touch,   pain,   heat,  A  Trace  of 
cold,  and  pressure  reside  in  the  skin,  and  by  the  effective    ^°  ^^  ^°^' 
exercise  of  this  function   the  body  is  enabled  to  guard 
against  extremes  of  temperatui-e,  and  in  all  sorts  of  un- 
consciously delicate  ways,  most  of  which  have  become 

quite  automatic,  to  ward  off  external  dangers.  Dr. 
Louis  Eobinson  has  pointed  out  that  the  most  sensitive 
parts  of  the  skin  owe  their  character  to  evolution  from 
the  days  of  primitive  man,  and  can  be  traced   to   the 


2/6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

necessity  for  guarding  our  most  vulnerable  points,  situ- 
ated as  they  are  in  the  armpits,  region  of  the  ribs,  groin, 
and  back  of  the  knees. 

(5)  Absorptive. — After  a  long  immersion  in  water, 
the  superficial  layers  of  the  skin  become  much  swollen, 
but  they  are  unable  to  absorb  any  substance,  even  in 
the  form  of  a  watery  solution.  When  the  fat  in  the 
epidermis  and  in  the  pores  of  the  skin  is  removed  by 
alcohol  or  ether,  then  absorption  may  take  place. 
Iodine,  carbolic  acid,  and  other  irritant  drugs  are 
absorbed  only  by  virtue  of  the  power  they  have  of  de- 
stroying the  epidermis.  Ointments  containing  medica- 
ments, when  thoroughly  rubbed  into  the  skin,  are 
absorbed  because  they  are  pressed  into  the  pores,  and 
so  gain  an  entrance  into  the  circulation.  Minute  traces 
of  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  and  other  gases  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  unbroken  skin. 

From  such  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  ultimate  structure 
and  functions  of  the  skin,  we  are  in  a  position  to 
estimate  the  overwhelming  importance  of  cleanliness. 
Hardly  any  of  the  skin's  functions  can  be  efficiently 
performed  without  the  removal  of  all  foreign  matter 
from  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand what  a  direct  influence  this  must  have  upon  the 
health  of  the  whole  body.  Its  indirect  wholesome 
influence  is,  however,  no  less  valuable  because  irritation 
of  the  skin  by  dirt,  excess  of  sebum,  sweat,  and  microbes, 
is  capable  of  bringing  into  activity  internal  reflexes 
which  are  apt  to  produce  disorder  of  the  secretions  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  probably  still  more  serious  effects. 

We  are  now  ready  to  inquire  into  the  most  efficient 
means  for  bringing  about  this  cleanly  condition.  These 
can  practically  be  divided  into  two  classes  of  treatment : 
(1)  friction  and  (2)  bathing. 


CLEANLINESS  277 

The  value  of  friction  cannot  be  emphasised  too  strongly,  FHcti 
especially  when  it  is  effected  with  a  good  sound  pair  of 
horsehair  gloves  or  a  strap.  As  a  rule  they  are  used 
as  a  preliminary  to  a  bath,  and,  when  applied  in  a  proper 
manner,  it  is  astonishing  to  see  the  amount  of  dead 
epidermal  scales  which  can  by  their  means  be  removed 
from  the  skin.  It  is  well  to  use  method  in  their 
application,  and  therefore  the  left  arm  should  first  be 
rubbed,  then  the  chest  and  abdomen,  back  and  right  arm, 
followed  by  the  left  leg,  and  thereafter  the  right  leg. 
By  this  means  the  whole  superficies  of  the  skin  can  be 
gone  over  very  nicely  by  the  use  of  the  gloves  alone, 
and  it  may  be  repeated  a  second  time  and  even  a  third 
time  with  great  advantage,  till  the  skin  is  glowing  with 
heat,  and  suffused  with  a  healthy  scarlet  flush. 

Considerable  muscular  and  respiratory  effort  is  de- 
manded for  this  operation,  and  if  carried  out  in  the 
morning,  after  a  few  minutes  of  brisk  Swedish  movements, 
practically  no  other  exercise  for  development  is  re- 
quired of  the  full-grown  man.  As  it  is  necessarily 
conducted  in  the  nude  state,  the  body  is  all  the  time 
enjoying  an  air  bath,  the  tonic  effect  of  which  is 
considerable.  The  feeling  of  lissomeness,  agility,  and 
general  hien-etre  after  such  a  friction  air  bath  must 
be  experienced  to  be  understood,  and  for  many  people 
who  are  unable  to  obtain  a  bath,  or  to  whom  it  is 
medically  forbidden,  the  process  makes  a  very  good- 
substitute. 

Friction  can,  of  course,  also  be  employed  in  the  bath 
by  means  of  brushes,  loofahs,  and  other  well-known 
means,  but  the  bath  is  of  infinitely  greater  value  when 
it  has  been  preceded  by  thorough  friction  with  a  good 
pair  of  horsehair  gloves. 

A  slow,  tedious,  and  sometimes  painful  combination  of 


278      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

air  bath,  cold  water  bath,  and  friction  is  performed  by 
certain  "  I^ature-cure  "  enthusiasts.  They  sit  in  3  inches 
of  cold  water,  lave  this  all  over  the  body  for  two  or 
three  minutes,  and  then,  standing  up,  rub  the  whole  body 
dry  by  simply  using  the  hands  without  any  towel.  To 
carry  out  this  procedure  aright  takes  the  best  part  of  an 
hour,  and  is  no  doubt  more  valuable  than  a  cold  bath 
preceded  by  friction  with  the  gloves.  It  is  often  fairly 
exhausting,  and  is  not  free  from  the  risk  of  catching 
cold. 

Bathing. 

So  far  as  the  maintenance  of  health  is  concerned, 
bathing  usually  resolves  itself,  with  people  of  well- 
regulated  lives,  into  a  morning  cold  bath,  a  weekly  hot 
bath,  an  occasional  Turkish  bath,  and  an  annual  course 
of  sea  bathing. 

A  daily  bath  of  some  kind  is  an  absolute  necessity, 
but  there  is  a  grave  doubt  as  to  whether  the  usual 
reputedly  bracing  and  tonic  cold  morning  bath  is  not 
a  serious  error,  and  only  to  be  classed  among  the 
stimulants  which  do  not  impart  vigour,  but  only  excite 
its  display.  In  any  case,  it  lacks  the  most  important 
factor  of  being  a  cleansing  agency,  which  requires  hot, 
warm,  or  tepid  water,  a  good  scrubbing-brush,  and  soap. 

The  action  of  a  cold  bath  is  to  constrict  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  skin,  and  drive  the  blood  to  the  internal 
organs.  The  respiration  is  greatly  increased  in  depth 
and  at  first  quickened,  the  frequency  of  the  pulse  is 
lessened,  and  the  temperature  somewhat  lowered.  The 
whole  nervous  system  is  immediately  and  powerfully 
stimulated,  and,  on  emerging  from  the  bath,  if  reaction 
takes  place,  the  tiny  arteries  dilate,  the  skin  flushes,  and 
the  bather  experiences  a  sensation  of  warmth  and  general 


CLEANLINESS  279 

well-being.  This  reaction  may  be  much  encouraged  by 
the  use  of  friction  with  rough  towels,  and  the  exercise 
necessary  to  manipulate  them. 

I  have  no  doubt  a  morning  plunge  in  cold  water  has 
a  bracing  or  tonic  effect  on  most  strong  young  men,  but 
in  principle  a  tonic  is  quite  wrong,  especially  in  the 
morning — the  time  when,  on  account  of  our  long  night's 
rest,  we  stand  least  in  need  of  it.  A  tonic  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  stimulant,  and  he  who  indulges  in  this  luxury 
must  be  prepared  to  pay  the  penalty,  which  sooner  or 
later  is  demanded  of  all. 

We  are  constantly  hearing  of  the  reaction  which  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  after  a  cold  bath,  and  the  explana- 
tion is  given  that  we  must  have  a  healthy  glow  all  over 
the  skin  just  after  the  plunge.  But  this  is  a  most 
fallacious  test.  There  are  very  few  who  do  not  experi- 
ence this  feeling  of  delight  and  pleasurable  glow  all  over 
the  skin  just  after  the  plunge,  but  the  true  test  of  the 
suitability  of  the  bath  is  to  feel  this  healthy  glow  all 
through  the  day. 

Now,  for  one  who  fails  to  get  the  so-called  reaction 
immediately  after  the  bath,  there  are  dozens  who  do  get 
it,  and  yet  feel  tired,  depressed,  cold,  and  irritable  three 
or  four  hours  after.  They  never  associate  those  un- 
pleasant feelings  with  their  morning  cold  bath,  though 
they  are  decided  indications  that  the  dangerous  stimulant 
should  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
people  who,  relying  on  the  pleasurable  afterglow,  and 
ignoring  the  subsequent  drowsiness  and  discomfort, 
continue  the  bath  when  it  has  begun  to  do  their  bodies 
serious  harm.  The  truth  is,  that  most  city  people  in 
these  days  have  had  all  their  reserve  force  abstracted 
by  their  daily  work :  they  forget  tliat  a  stimulant  or 
tonic  adds  nothing,  but,  after  a  temporary  fillip,  actually 


28o      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

subtracts  much  nervous  force  or  energy  from  their  bodies 
which  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  afford. 

This  drawback  to  the  cold  bath  would  be  removed 
were  a  preliminary  hot  shower  or  douche  taken  to  warm 
the  body  thoroughly.  Where  this  is  not  available,  the 
only  alternative  is  to  adopt  a  milder  form  of  morning 
bath  which  may  yet  be  quite  capable  of  producing  a 
pleasant  afterglow  without  any  of  the  exhausting 
effects  of  the  cold  water.  I  believe,  however,  that  many 
of  the  people  who  find  the  cold  bath  produce  some  of 
these  unpleasant  after-effects  would  be  able  to  tolerate 
it,  if  they  initiated  the  process  with  a  thorough  horse- 
hair glove  friction.  The  ordinary  cold  bath,  of  course, 
is  better  than  none  at  all,  but  a  preferable  substitute  is 
to  be  found  in  the  shower  bath,  especially  if  preceded 
by  a  hot  shower,  and  that  again  by  friction. 
Tlie  Hot         Perfect  cleanliness,  however,  cannot  be    obtained  by 

Bath  at 

Night.  ^^y  of  these  means,  as  the  oily  coating  of  the  skin 
cannot  be  properly  removed  without  heat.  The  warm 
bath  in  some  shape  or  form  is  necessary  for  this  purpose, 
and  it  is  all  the  more  valuable  if  it  be  taken  in  a  full 
reclining  position.  The  high  temperature  (90°-98°'4  F.) 
of  the  water  melts  off  the  fatty  layer  from  the  epidermis, 
the  dead  layers  of  which  become  swollen  up,  the  tiny 
arteries  dilate,  the  pulse  and  respirations  are  increased 
in  frequency,  and  the  temperature  is  raised,  and,  if 
continued  long  enough,  perspiration  takes  place.  The 
flushing  of  the  skin  with  blood  means  that  the  internal 
organs  are  depleted,  including  the  brain  and  other  vital 
parts,  and  thus,  if  the  water  be  too  hot,  fainting  is  apt 
to  occur. 

The  general  effect  of  such  a  bath,  continued  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes,  is  soothing,  and  hence  after  a  hard 
day's  work  or  exercise,  when  the  muscles  are  sore  and 


CLEANLINESS  281 

aching,  or  when  internal  colic  or  cramp  is  threatening, 
it  is  a  most  valuable  agency,  being  followed  by  a  tend- 
ency to  sleep.  A  warm  bath  on  the  way  to  bed  is, 
therefore,  highly  commendable.  Friction  in  the  bath 
or  during  the  process  of  drying  facilitates  the  removal 
of  the  dirty  pelhcle  and  the  dead  epidermal  scales  on 
the  skin. 

It  is  always  an  advantage  to  apply  cold  water  after 
such  a  bath,  and,  indeed,  the  order  in  water  application 
should  always  be  warm  first  and  then  cold.  The  cold 
douche  should  be  of  short  duration,  and  not  sufficient 
to  dissipate  the  heat  which  has  been  stored  in  the  body 
by  the  application  of  the  warm  water.  Any  lassitude 
which  may  have  been  caused  by  the  heat  immediately 
vanishes  with  the  cold  affusion,  and  even  if  there  be 
nothing  bracing  or  tonic  in  the  warm  bath,  its  general 
result  is  by  no  means  of  an  exhausting  nature,  but  pro- 
ductive of  vigour  and  virility. 

The  well-trained  athlete  of  Japan  would  scout  the 
idea  of  taking  a  cold  bath,  whereas  he  absolutely  revels 
in  the  excessively  hot  bath,  taking  one  at  least  every 
day,  and  staying  in  for  one  or  more  hours  on  each  occa- 
sion. He  certainly  does  not  intend  that  they  should 
exhaust  his  energies,  as  a  wrestling  bout  is  often  both 
preceded  and  followed  by  such  a  bath,  and  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  removal  of  waste  matter  both 
from  the  skin  and  the  tissues  generally  is  productive  of 
the  greatest  vigour  to  the  whole  body,  and  precludes 
the  necessity  for  the  so-called  tonic  effect  of  the  cold 
bath. 

For  the  great  majority  of   people,  especially  in    the  A  Useful 
morning  and    after    exercise,  the    following   comUnation  j^°f  ^™' 
hath  will  be  found  the  best  form  of  introduction  to  the 
duties  of  the  day.     All  that  is  necessary  is  to  ensure 


282      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  supply  of  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  in  the  morning, 
and  to  this  is  added  a  sufficiency  of  lukewarm  or  coldish 
water  from  the  bath  taps  until  about  3  inches  of 
water  lies  in  the  bath.  Then  with  this,  a  pair  of  loofah 
gloves,  and  a  little  superfatted  soap,  the  skin  from  neck 
to  toes  should  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  and  cleansed. 
The  operation  should  only  take  about  a  minute,  and 
then  a  few  handfuls  of  really  cold  water  may  be  splashed 
over  the  skin,  and,  jumping  out  of  the  bath  on  to  a  cork 
mat,  the  body  may  be  enveloped  in  a  large  Turkish 
towel,  and  thorough  drying  and  friction  take  place 
without  the  risk  of  a  chill. 

The  use  of  soap,  like  every  fixed  habit  of  ordinary 
humanity,  has  been  decried  by  the  Nature-healer  with 
insufficient  authority.  It  may  be  admitted  that  when 
used  in  excess,  or  of  an  inferior  quality,  bad  results  are 
likely  to  ensue ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  perfect  removal 
of  the  fatty  pellicle  of  dirt  cannot  be  effected  without 
soap.  Friction  is  doubtless  of  great  value,  and  for  the 
morning  combination  bath  the  addition  of  common  salt 
on  the  loofah  instead  of  soap  materially  increases  the 
friction,  so  that  the  cleansing  effect  attained  is  greater 
— even  if  no  other  benefit  accrues — than  without  it. 
But  the  popular  faith  in  soap  is  not  misplaced,  and  in 
any  case  it  must  be  used  in  the  warm  bath. 

Soap  owes  its  value  to  the  fat  and  alkali  contained 
in  it,  and  it  is  better  to  have  the  former  in  excess  than 
the  latter.  Free  alkali,  indeed,  is  harmful  to  the  skin, 
causing  chafing  easily  and  acting  as  a  mild  corrosive, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  fat  is  the  valuable  agent  in 
dissolving  or  at  least  emulsifying  the  oily  substances  on 
the  skin.  For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  be  sure  of 
the  origin  of  the  fatty  basis,  and  there  are  grounds  for 
believing  that  a  vegetable  is  better  than  an  animal  one, 


CLEANLINESS  283 

and  is  much  more  likely  to  be  pure.  A  superfatted 
soap  is  useful,  and,  if  made  from  cocoa-nut  oil,  lathers 
freely,  and  can  be  used  with  salt  water.  "  Scented " 
soaps,  "  medicated  "  soaps,  "  antiseptic  "  soaps,  and  so  forth 
have  no  properties  of  exceptional  value. 

Turkish  baths  are  valuable  if  not  indulged  in  too  hot. 
"When  in  residence  at  a  hydropathic,  a  short  course  of 
three  or  four  taken  in  the  morning  at  a  moderate  tem- 
perature, and  prolonged  for  only  twenty  minutes,  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  tonics  in  existence,  by  reason  of 
their  extraordinary  cleansing  effect,  and  removal  of  waste 
matter  from  the  system.  They  are  specially  valuable 
to  the  rheumatic  subject,  but  there  are  grave  doubts  as 
to  their  efficacy  in  breaking  up  a  cold,  at  least  in  its 
early  stages.  On  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  the 
numbers  who  resort  to  them  under  this  belief,  the 
Turkish  bath  chambers  are  usually  the  haunt  of  the 
Micrococcus  catarrhalis  and  other  allied  species  of  bacteria, 
so  that  more  people  catch  colds  in  such  places  than  are 
ciu-ed  of  them. 

The  efficacy  of  sea  bathing  depends  not  so  much  on  The  Time 
the  salt  as  on  the  pleasurable  exercise  associated  with  ^"V?^^ 

.      .  rJatlUDg, 

it,  the  fine  ozone-laden  air  in  which  it  is  carried  on,  the 
motion  of  the  waves  breaking  against  the  skin,  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  indulged  in  when  the  mind  is  free  from 
business  cares  and  on  holiday  bent.  The  popular  belief 
that  one  cannot  come  by  any  harm  when  in  contact 
with  sea  water  is  answerable  for  the  loss  of  many  lives 
annually.  Over-exposure  to  cold,  whether  by  staying 
too  long  in  the  sea,  or  paddling  too  long  on  the  beach, 
or  getting  wet  in  a  little  boat,  will  be  followed  by  the 
same  penalties  as  when  fresh  water  is  involved. 

For  most  people  a  mere  dip  in  the  sea  water  about 
midday  is  of    infinitely  greater  value    than    the  nerve- 


284      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

exhausting,  long  morning  swim,  resulting  as  a  rule  in 
blue  chattering  lips  and  blanched  finger-tips,  and  under- 
taken more  as  an  act  of  bravado  than  in  the  fulfilment 
of  any  hygienic  quest. 

All  serious  bathing  should  be  undertaken  an  hour 
before  a  meal,  or  about  three  hours  after,  and  this  applies 
to  hot  baths  at  home  as  well  as  to  sea  bathing. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  like  to  suggest  an  explanation 
of  the  great  value  of  bathing  of  all  kinds  which  I  have 
not  before  seen  noted.  It  is  well  known  that  every 
group  of  muscles  is  supplied  by  the  same  nerve  as  the 
skin  overlying  it,  and  that  this  nei^v^e  has  a  local  centre 
in  a  segment  of  the  spinal  cord  or  central  nervous 
system.  The  beneficial  influence  produced  is  therefore 
in  the  nature  of  a  reflex  action,  the  stimulus  to  the  skin 
passing  rapidly  to  the  spinal  cord  or  brain,  and  then  to 
the  muscles. 

Medicated  baths  have  no  specific  general  effect,  but 
are  often  useful  as  local  applications  with  a  remedial 
influence  upon  certain  skin  diseases ;  but  water  baths 
of  various  kinds  are  often  an  excellent  medium  for  the 
effective  application  of  electricity. 

Cleanhness  has  a  special  importance  with  regard  to 
certain  parts  of   the  body,  and   is   connected  moreover 
with  the  treatment  of  their  characteristic  disorders. 
The  The  Face  should  be  washed  at  least  twice  a  day — 

of  Com-  ^^-^^  water  always  being  used.  This  acts  as  a  tonic  to 
pi  ex  ion.  the  complexion,  delays  the  approach  of  wrinkles,  and  is 
likewise  refreshing  and  agreeable.  Efficient  washing  and 
pure  healthy  blood  are  the  only  secrets  of  a  good  com- 
plexion. External  applications  which  do  not  promote 
cleanliness  are  only  so  much  obstruction  to  the  efforts  of 
the  skin  to  look  its  best.  This  it  can  never  do  when 
unclean,  even  although  flushed  with  the  only  basis  of  a 


CLEANLINESS  285 

healthy  colour  (good,  pure  blood),  in  every  capillary. 
Conversely,  if  the  blood  be  wrong,  no  amount  of  cleanli- 
ness can  be  availing. 

A  good  supply  of  blood  ensures  the  presence  of 
another  important  factor  of  a  good  complexion,  namely,  a 
sufficient  layer  of  fat  to  produce  plumpness,  roundness  of 
outline,  and  softness  of  skin.  Lying  underneath  the  skin 
of  the  whole  body  is  a  layer  of  semi-liquid  fat,  which 
fills  in  the  depressions,  allows  the  skin  to  glide  smoothly 
over  the  underlying  muscles  and  bones,  and  contributes 
much  to  its  nutrition.  When  this  fat  is  absorbed,  as  in 
starvation  or  illness,  the  skin  becomes  dry,  rough,  harsh, 
and  fissured,  and  no  amount  of  external  application  is 
capable  of  nourishing  the  parts,  as  the  only  method  of 
feeding  the  skin  is  by  feeding  the  whole  body. 

In  addition  to  these  three  elements,  and  lying  beneath 
the  fatty  layer,  is  the  real  substratum  upon  which  the 
complexion  is  built,  namely,  the  facial  muscles,  which  give 
expression  to  the  face  by  their  constant  contractions,  and 
which,  when  wasted  and  thin,  dispel  the  least  possible 
chance  of  attractiveness  in  any  countenance.  Although 
they  are  voluntary,  and  therefore  under  the  control  of 
the  will,  they  depend  for  their  size  and  contour  upon 
the  sense  organs,  or  rather  the  openings  of  these  which 
they  guard.  Thus  the  muscles  of  the  lower  half  of  the 
face  are  controlled  by  and  express  the  condition  of  the 
digestion,  the  muscles  of  the  middle  third  are  controlled 
by  the  condition  of  the  lungs,  and  those  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  face  respond  to  the  impressions  made  upon 
the  eyes,  nose,  and  generally  the  whole  mind. 

We  must  eat  well,  therefore,  if  we  are  to  keep  un- 
pleasant lines  from  appearing  at  the  corners  of  our 
mouths,  and  live  a  wholesome,  cheerful,  open-air  exist- 
ence if  we  would  keep  crow's-feet  away  from  our  eyes. 


286      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Artificial  When  all  this  has  been  said,  however,  this  must  still 
^^'^^-  be  added,  that  much,  very  much,  can  be  done  by  art  to 
delay  the  onset  of  the  appearance  of  old  age,  although 
it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the  basis  of  all  really 
cosmetic  improvement  of  the  complexion  is  the  natural 
elasticity  of  the  skin. 

Hence  strapping  the  face,  which  is  distinctly  useful  as 
a  means  of  removing  excess  of  fat,  is  only  of  temporary 
value  in  the  avoidance  of  wrinkles,  and  therefore  best 
avoided. 

Steaming  the  face  relaxes  the  skin  and  soothes  the 
muscles,  melts  the  fatty  contents  of  sebaceous  glands, 
and  opens  the  pores  by  stimulating  the  sweat  glands. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  sovereign  remedy  for  effective  cleansing 
of  the  face,  but  owes  its  chief  value  to  the  fact  that 
steam  is  absolutely  pure  water.  Besides,  it  is  necessary 
to  use  perfectly  cold  water  thereafter,  and  even  then  it 
has  left  the  skin  worse  instead  of  better,  by  reason  of  its 
removal  of  the  natural  oil. 

For  all  practical  purposes  the  following  is  the  best 
method  of  improving  the  complexion.  First  make  a 
paste  of  fine  oatmeal  and  milk,  and  rub  this  all  over  the 
face  with  patient  and  thorough  friction.  Then  with  a 
soft  rag  wipe  it  off  carefully  and  wash  the  face  with 
lukewarm  rain  water,  at  the  same  time  occasionally 
using  a  little  superfatted  soap.  This  will  ensure  perfect 
cleanliness  of  the  skin,  which  is  the  first  consideration. 
If  the  skin  is  rather  greasy,  two  drops  of  lemon  juice 
may  be  gently  rubbed  over  the  face,  as  this  has  a 
tendency  to  close  the  pores.  Then  dry  with  a  soft 
towel.  The  use  of  soap  which  is  too  alkaline,  or  water 
which  is  too  hot,  removes  Nature's  face  cream,  and 
excessively  vigorous  friction  has  the  same  effect,  the 
result  being  a  chapped,  coarse-looking  skin.     The  least 


CLEANLINESS  287 

scrap  of  almond  oil  or  camphor  ice — a  mixture  of  white 
emollient  ointment  and  camphor  flowers — may  now  be 
rubbed  into  the  skin,  and,  if  there  be  any  wrinkles, 
massage  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  wrinkle  may 
be  employed.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  this, 
however,  as  in  the  wrong  hands  massage  may  do 
more  harm  than  good,  a  knowledge  of  the  direction 
of  the  circulation  in  the  veins  and  lymphatics  being 
requisite. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  best  skin  tonic  is 
cold,  either  in  the  form  of  air  or  water,  because  it 
compels  a  greater  indulgence  in  exercise  and  food  to 
keep  up  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

The  best  skin  food,  again,  is  that  which  suits  the 
digestion  and  assimilation  best,  and  there  is  no  specific 
diet  which  has  a  direct  influence  on  the  skin.  There 
are  some  dietary  articles  which  exercise  a  malignant 
effect,  such  as  alcohol,  strong  spices  and  condiments, 
strong  tea,  and  excess  of  meat.  Milk  and  fish  should 
be  used  in  preference  to  meat  by  those  with  a  coarse 
skin,  and  plenty  of  fruit  and  vegetables.  Olive  oil  has 
been  extolled  in  this  connection,  but  only  that  quantity 
which  is  assimilated  without  risk  is  of  any  effective 
value,  although  at  times  the  internal  application  of  this 
bland  oil  is  useful  in  the  excessively  thin. 

To  parody  a  well-known  proverb,  "  Take  care  of  the 
body,  and  the  complexion  will  take  care  of  itself." 

Applications  of  many  varieties  and  of  more  or  less  A  Few- 
value  are  made  to  the  skin,  and  so  long  as  too  much  tions'"^' 
is  not  expected  of  them,  and  the  laws  of  health  are 
simultaneously  followed,  no  harm  can  result  from  their 
use.  A  beautiful  skin  should  be  smooth,  soft,  pliable, 
and  of  a  dull  gloss,  its  colour  should  be  a  dull  white  or 
yellowish  brown,  and  it  should  be  free  from  impurities, 
19 


288      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

such  as  anomalies  of  pigment,  growths,  anomalies  of  the 
sebaceous  glands,  and  abnormal  growth  of  hair. 

The  following  is  a  useful  lotion  for  use  after  exposure 
to  sun  or  wind,  or  when  there  is  chafing  or  roughness. 
It  should  be  applied  freely  with  a  small  sponge. 

Distilled  water,   5   oz. ;    powdered   borax,   1   drm. ; 
glycerine,  |  oz. ;  sulphite  of  soda,  2  drms. ;  rose 
water  to  10  oz. 
For  the  removal  of  sunburn,  blackheads,  and  similar 
affections,  this  is  valuable : — 

Lanoline,    5    drms. ;    almond    oil,    5    drms. ;    pre- 
cipitated sulphur,   5    drms. ;   oxide  of   zinc,   2 1 
drms. ;    violet    extrait,     |     drm. ;    tincture     of 
alkanet,  a  sufficiency  to  impart  a  flesh  colour. 
The  natural  fats  in  this  ointment  are  extremely  useful 
when  the  skin  is  dry.      When  the  skin  is  too  moist,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  not  the  smallest  objection  to  the 
use  of  a  very  fine  powder,  and  this  can  be  recommended 
as  harmless  and  agreeable : — 

Oxide    of    zinc,   4   oz. ;    orris   powder,    1 0    drms, ; 

French  chalk,  5  oz. ;  essence  of  musk,  5  drops ; 

jasmine    extrait,    |    drm. ;    white    rose    extrait, 

I  drm. ;  cassie  extrait,  J  drm. 

This    powder    should    be    applied    with    a    pufif    after 

washing. 

Cold  Cream  is  simply  an  ointment  containing  an 
excess  of  water,  which  gives  it  a  cooling  effect  during 
evaporation,  and  at  the  same  time  helps  to  extract 
excess  of  moisture  from  the  skin.  It  should  not  be 
rubbed  on,  but  simply  smeared  on  the  surface.  Here  is 
a  simple  formula  for  making  it : — 

White  wax,  1  oz. ;  spermaceti,  2  oz. ;  almond  oil, 
6  oz. ;  rose  water,  1 8  drms. ;  otto  of  roses, 
8  drops. 


CLEANLINESS  289 

It  will    be  seen  that    it    has  a  similar  composition  to 
camphor  ice. 

Glycerine  is  a  risky  substance  to  apply,  as  it  has  a 
great  affinity  for  water  and  produces  much  smarting, 
because  it  draws  too  much  moisture  from  the  skin.  It 
should  therefore  be  used  as  a  jelly,  with  some  starch  or 
isinglass  and  water,  or  well  diluted  with  rose  water. 

Paints,  varnishes,  enamels,  or  stains  are  to  be  con- 
demned except  for  theatrical  purposes,  and  then  only  the 
very  best  quality  should  be  used. 

Freckles  are  produced  by  the  action  of  the  light  rays 
upon  the  sebaceous  secretion,  the  colouring  matter  of 
which  is  separated  and  stains  the  cuticle.  They  are 
either  permanent  or  temporary,  and  it  is  only  in  these 
latter  that  remedies  are  of  any  value,  and  even  then 
they  should  be  applied  without  delay.  The  simplest 
and  best  application  is  buttermilk,  and  this  owes  its 
value  to  its  contained  lactic  acid.  "Where  it  can 
not  be  obtained,  the  following  may  be  kept  ready  for 
use : — 

Acid  lactic  (10  per  cent.),  2  drms. ;  glycerine,  ^  oz. ; 
essence  of  white  rose,  1|-  drm. ;  tincture  of 
benzoin,  1  drm. ;  water  to  6  oz. 

Acne  is  the  name  of  the  disease  which  owes  its  origin  Black- 
to  "  blackheads."  For  many  reasons,  chief  of  which,  ^]^^^^  and 
however,  is  disregard  of  the  laws  of  health,  the  sebaceous 
glands  become  overcharged  or  plugged  with  secretion, 
the  part  nearest  the  surface  acquiring  a  coat  of  dirt,  and 
so  a  comedo,  or  blackhead,  is  formed.  This  can  easily  be 
squeezed  out  by  a  watch-key,  although  the  sharp  edges 
are  liable  to  damage  the  skin ;  or  a  comedo  extractor  can 
be  purchased  from  the  chemist,  and  the  contents  expelled, 
looking  like,  and  commonly  called,  a  "  grub,"  or  worm. 
When  only  a  few  are  present,  this  is  what  should  be 


290      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

done,  then  the  part  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  hot 
water,  and  a  little  spirits  of  camphor  painted  on. 

When,  however,  a  great  many  are  present,  this  is 
impossible,  and  as  the  contents  quickly  putrefy  or 
decompose,  inflammation  is  set  up,  and  a  red  pimple 
originates,  which  is  called  an  acne  spot,  and  may  proceed  to 
suppurate.  If  this  takes  place,  the  contents  are  discharged, 
and,  when  the  process  of  healing  up  is  completed,  a  small 
scar,  pit,  or  depression  is  left,  which  in  many  cases  is 
so  bad  that  an  appearance  is  presented  as  if  the  victim 
had  had  an  attack  of  small-pox.  In  these  circumstances 
the  most  vigorous  treatment  is  required  for  eradication. 

Sometimes  the  most  effective  method  is  to  sponge  the 
skin  with  pure  spirits  of  turpentine.  If  this  is  done 
pretty  vigorously,  and  then  the  face  well  washed  with 
hot  water,  the  most  hopeless  case  will  at  times  acquire 
a  beautiful  complexion.  This  does  not  always  happen, 
however,  and  then  the  only  course  open  is  to  squeeze  out 
each  blackhead,  steam  the  face  over  boiling  water,  there- 
after wash  it  with  a  coarse  woollen  cloth,  or  scrub  it  with 
a  brush  even  until  it  bleeds,  and,  after  drying  thoroughly, 
rub  in  a  sulphur  ointment.     This  is  a  good  one : — 

Hypochlorite  of  sulphur,  1   drm. ;  simple  ointment, 

1  oz. 
If  this  sets  up  too  much  irritation,  it  must  be  stopped 
for  a  day  or  two,  and   a  soothing  zinc   ointment   may 
be  applied.     Sometimes  a  lotion  is  more  agreeable  and 
effective,  and  this  may  be  used  : — 

Precipitated  sulphur,  2  drms. ;   glycerine,  3   drms. ; 

rectified  spirit,  1   oz. ;    lime  water,  3   oz. ;   rose 

water,  3  oz. 
In  addition  to   the  above  measures,  internal  treatment 
is  often  necessary,  and  then  a  medical  man  should  be 
consulted. 


CLEANLINESS  291 

A  variety  of  face  blemish  which  is  of  vital  moment  For  Red 
to  many  poor  mortals  is  a  red  nose,  and  this  in  most 
instances  is  due  to  dilatation  of  the  superficial  blood 
vessels,  and  depends  on  some  alimentary  affection.  The 
effective  treatment  of  this  condition  requires  not  only 
appropriate  internal  medication,  but  very  frequently  the 
most  careful  scarification  of  the  dilated  vessels.  The 
sharpest  lancets  and  the  finest  of  little  punches  is 
required  for  this  purpose,  and  only  an  expert  can  use 
them.  Good  results  are  sometimes  obtained  without 
the  necessity  of  resorting  to  these  measures,  by  taking  a 
dose  of  opening  medicine  each  evening,  and,  after  smearing 
the  nose  with  oleate  of  bismuth  ointment,  to  powder  on 
the  tip  a  small  quantity  of  the  following : — 

Carbonate    of    bismuth,  4   drms. ;    oleate    of    zinc, 
4  drms. ;  starch,  4  oz. 
A    simpler    application    still    is    a    saturated    solution 
of  boric  acid  in  water,  painted  on  at  bedtime,  or  this 
ointment : — 

Solution  of  the  subacetate  of  lead,  4  drms. ;  lanoline, 
2  oz. 
Many  cases,  however,  are  quite    incapable  of  improve- 
ment under  external  applications. 

Moles  may  be  treated  by  excision  or  electrolysis, 
whilst  warts  can  often  be  exterminated  by  painting  with 
glacial  acetic  acid  three  times  a  day.  More  powerful 
remedies  are  sometimes  required,  but  should  be  left  to 
the  selection  of  the  medical  attendant. 

Blushing,    or    morbid    flushing    of    the    face,    is    not  The  Cure 
necessarily    an    indication    of    lack    of    vigour    or    any  ?^  Blush- 
diseased  condition,  but  is  an  evidence  of  a  badly  balanced 
nervous  system.      Its  intimate  cause  is  closely  associated 
with  that  portion  of  the  nervous  system — if  such  there 
be — where  the  will  resides,  and  with  inability  to  control 


292      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  filaments  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  which 
supply  the  blood  vessels  of  the  face.  This  results  in 
their  dilatation,  and  a  feeling  of  warm  suffusion  which 
serves  to  increase  the  discomfort  of  self-consciousness. 
It  is  on  a  par  with  palpitation  and  other  morbid 
phenomena  of  a  reflex  character,  and  shows  that  the 
sympathetic  is  not  under  the  effective  control  of  the 
central  nervous  system. 

There  is  no  specific  which  will  cure  this  condition. 
The  mind  must  be  duly  exercised  and  the  will  trained 
till  the  feeling  of  fear  which  is  engendered  by  intro- 
spection is  quite  banished,  much  in  the  same  way  that 
drilling  a  recruit  teaches  him  to  respond  to  the  word  of 
command  even  when  such  obedience  means  facing  the 
most  fearful  experiences. 

When  this  is  thoroughly  understood,  it  is  only  a 
question  of  conquering  the  activity  of  the  reflex  by  the 
constant  practice  of  auto-suggestion.  This  is  much 
aided  by  the  suggestion  of  the  medical  attendant,  and 
occasionally  a  little  gentle  sarcasm  is  not  out  of  place. 
The  sufferer  may  be  reminded  that  he  is  not  of  such 
overwhelming  importance  that  he  need  imagine  himself 
the  cynosure  of  every  eye,  and  that  indeed  most  people 
are  too  much  taken  up  with  their  own  affairs  to  trouble 
about  him.  Such  reasoning  has  often  a  powerful  influence 
for  good,  and  enables  a  man  to  face  situations  which  he 
would  not  otherwise  attempt.  This  is  highly  important, 
because  it  is  worse  than  useless  to  avoid  occasions  that 
give  rise  to  the  j)henomena,  just  as  the  early  ascetics 
found  it  useless  to  fly  to  the  deserts  to  avoid  tempta- 
tions. 

In  most  cases,  indeed,  it  is  wise  for  sufferers  to  take 
special  opportunities  of  mingUng  with  their  fellows  in 
gymnasia,  physical  culture,  or   dancing  classes,  and  by 


CLEANLINESS  293 

this  means  there  may  be  acquired  the  power  of  display- 
ing a  less  sensitive  front  to  the  external  world. 

The  care  of  the  hair  is  a  large  subject,  which  will  be 
dealt  with  more  fully  when  we  talk  of  head  coverings, 
in  the  chapter  on  "  Protection."  It  will  suffice  here  to 
say  that  if  it  be  properly  brushed  daily  with  a  nice  soft 
brush,  and  washed,  say  once  a  week,  with  pure  water  and 
soap,  nothing  more  is  required  to  ensure  its  cleanliness 
or  keep  it  in  perfect  condition.  For  this  purpose  special 
applications  of  all  sorts  and  kinds  are  no  more  necessary 
than  in  the  case  of  a  horse,  whose  coat  is  kept  in  a  con- 
dition of  gloss  by  perfectly  simple  and  mechanical  means. 

The  hands  should  be  washed  at  least  before  every  The  Hands 
meal.  If  this  were  attended  to  more  regularly,  many  ^^^  Nails. 
diseases  would  be  avoided  which  are  now  quite  common. 
This  applies  not  only  to  lead  poisoning  and  kindred 
maladies,  but  to  others  not  so  well  known.  If  possible, 
running  water  should  be  used,  but  where  this  cannot  be 
obtained,  it  is  well  to  swill  them  out  in  a  fresh  basin  full 
of  clean  water,  before  drying.  In  winter  especially  it 
is  of  supreme  importance  to  dry  them  perfectly  on  a 
clean  towel,  as  otherwise  chilblains  and  chapped  con- 
ditions very  readily  arise. 

The  nails  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water  and 
a  nail-brush,  and  the  dirt  which  accumulates  under  them 
should  be  cleared  out  by  means  of  a  nail-cleaner.  This 
dirt  contains  all  sorts  of  microbes,  hence  nail  biting  and 
sucking  is  not  free  from  the  danger  of  swallowing  harm- 
ful germs.  Scraping  the  nails  with  a  penknife  is  repre- 
hensible, as  it  provides  rough  places  for  the  lodgment  of 
dirt.  The  skin  overhanging  the  lunula  or  half-moon- 
shaped  appearance  at  the  root  of  the  nail  should  be 
pressed  back  twice  a  week,  or  else  it  is  apt  to  become 
torn  and  ragged,  forming  "  hang  nails,"  through  which  it 


294      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

is  quite  possible  for  poisonous  matter  to  enter  the  blood, 
and  cause  death.  For  this  reason,  although  not  abso- 
lutely necessary,  it  is  a  wise  economy  to  invest  in  a  cheap 
manicure  set,  which  enables  one  to  pay  more  careful 
attention  to  the  condition  of  the  nails.  The  finger  nails 
should  be  cut  in  a  curve,  and  special  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  sides  to  prevent  them  growing  into  the 
flesh.  The  removal  of  white  spots  and  stains  from  the 
nails  will  soon  become  unnecessary  if  proper  attention  is 
given  to  the  "  manicure." 

Where  the  hands  must  be  frequently  washed,  especi- 
ally in  the  winter  time  or  in  an  east  wind,  it  is  wise  to 
rub  them  before  drying  with  a  little  of  the  following 
lotion,  which  is  also  a  sovereign  remedy  for  the  cure  and 
prevention  of  chapped  hands.  Take  1  oz.  of  quince 
seeds.  Eoughly  bruise  them,  and  boil  in  32  oz.  of 
water  until  reduced  to  16  oz.  Strain  through  a  flannel 
bag,  gently  squeezing  the  kernels,  and  add  8  oz.  of 
glycerine  and  8  oz.  of  bay-rhum.  This  is  quite  sufficient, 
but  a  little  starch  and  boric  acid  often  makes  an  improve- 
ment. 

Sweating  and  greasy  hands  may  be  much  improved 
by  sponging  them  with  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin 
in  water,  or  using  some  of  the  dusting  powders  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  feet. 

Daily  washing  of  the  feet  is  an  absolute  necessity, 
but  those  who  take  a  morning  bath  should  pay  special 
attention  to  the  parts  between  the  toes.  The  toe  nails 
should  be  cut  straight  across,  and  it  is  even  wise  to  cut 
a  V-shaped  part  out  of  the  centre  of  the  free  edge 
to  discourage  such  growth  as  might  bring  about  "  in- 
growing "  toe  nail.  Further  directions  with  regard 
to  the  care  of  the  feet  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Protection." 


CLEANLINESS  295 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  importance  The  For- 
of  the  most  rigid  and  careful  attention  to  the  teeth,  and  ^g^i^^g^'i^ 
this  is  only  emphasised  by  the  additional  statement  that 
such  care  ought  to  begin  in  the  days  of  infancy.  Nature 
has  lavishly  endowed  us  with  two  sets  of  teeth.  The 
twenty  milk  teeth  begin  to  be  cut  at  the  age  of  six  months, 
and  the  process  is  usually  completed  by  the  end  of  the 
second  year,  although  in  rickety  children,  where  teeth- 
ing often  does  not  begin  till  they  are  a  year  old,  the  age 
of  three  may  be  attained  before  it  terminates.  These 
teeth  begin  to  be  replaced  about  the  sixth  year,  and  by 
the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  all  the  permanent  set, 
except  the  last  molars  or  "  wisdom  "  teeth,  are  complete 
and  ready  for  the  process  of  mastication. 

Each  tooth  consists  of  a  portion  above  the  gum,  called 
the  crown,  a  portion  embedded  in  the  gum,  called  the 
root  or  fang,  and  a  narrow  neck  connecting  the  two. 
The  outside  of  the  tooth  is  very  hard  and  white,  and  is 
called  the  enamel,  and  fits  like  a  cap  over  the  major 
portion  of  the  body  of  the  tooth,  which  is  called  the 
dentine,  a  substance  like  bone,  full  of  fine  long  tubes. 
In  the  centre  of  the  tooth  is  the  pulp  cavity,  which  goes 
right  to  the  bottom  of  the  root  in  the  jawbone,  and 
contains  the  blood  vessels  and  nerves. 

These  thirty-two  permanent  teeth  should  be  placed 
regularly  in  the  sockets  in  the  jawbones,  and  the  upper 
and  lower  set  should  fit  accurately  upon  each  other. 
Sometimes,  because  of  inherited  peculiarities,  they  are 
too  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  jaws,  and  so 
forced  out  of  line,  and  crowded  against  each  other ;  and 
the  same  defects  arise  by  reason  of  mouth-breathing  on 
account  of  adenoids  in  the  naso-pharynx,  or  other  cause, 
thumb-sucking,  the  use  of  comforters,  and  teats  of  feeding 
bottles.     In  these  circumstances,  or  because  of  neglect 


296      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

of  the  teeth  in  other  ways,  caries,  which  means  decay  in 
the  enamel  or  dentine,  arises,  and  toothache  is  set  up. 

Just  what  the  specific  causes  of  this  condition  may 
be  is  not  yet  settled,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  is  closely 
bound  up  with  the  development  of  microbes,  of  which 
no  fewer  than  one  hundred  varieties  have  been  found  flour- 
ishing in  the  human  mouth.  As  these  cannot  live  upon 
a  perfectly  healthy  tooth,  they  at  first  find  a  lodgment 
in  fragments  of  food  which  are  left  sticking  on,  around, 
and  between  the  teeth,  and  their  vital  activities  result 
in  the  production  of  many  toxins  or  poisons  of  an  acid 
nature,  which  attack  the  enamel,  and  finally  succeed  in 
breaking  down  its  magnificent  resisting  powers. 

In  addition  to  this,  they  often  penetrate  through 
little  injuries  in  the  gums  themselves,  and  set  up  inflam- 
mation in  the  margins  of  the  gums,  causing  these  to 
recede  from  the  teeth  and  expose  unprotected  parts  of 
the  dentine,  which  succumbs  quicker  than  the  enamel. 
Still  further,  they  may  make  their  residence  in  the 
delicate  tissue  of  the  gums,  and  finally  undermine  the 
foundations  of  the  tooth  in  the  socket,  so  that  it  quickly 
drops  out  even  when  fairly  healthy. 

Finally,  the  secretions  of  the  mouth,  acting  on  the 
soluble  remains  of  the  food,  produce  a  material  called 
tartar,  which  consists  chiefly  of  lime  with  mucus  and 
cells  from  the  mouth,  impregnated  by  a  large  number  of 
bacilli,  and  forming  a  firm  gelatinous  mass  adhering  to 
the  teeth. 
The  Use  of  In  all  these  ways  decay  of  one  kind  or  another  is  set 
Brash*^*^'  up,  and  it  will  be  seen  how  vitally  important  is  the 
practice  of  cleanliness  in  the  teeth  and  mouth.  This 
should  be  started  when  the  first  milk  tooth  appears,  and 
all  that  is  necessary  at  this  stage  is  to  wipe  out  the 
mouth  with  a  soft  piece  of  rag  dipped  in  a  solution  of 


CLEANLINESS  297 

one  teaspoonful  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  borax  to  a 
tumblerful  of  warm  water.  This  should  be  done  after 
each  meal,  and,  in  addition,  night  and  morning,  and  as 
soon  as  possible  the  child  should  be  taught  the  best 
method  of  using  a  tooth-brush. 

Should  caries  arise  in  the  milk  teeth,  it  is  of  prime 
importance  that  a  visit  should  be  paid  to  the  dentist  at 
once,  as  decay  in  these  teeth  predisposes  to  decay  in  the 
permanent  set.  Not  only  lifelong  indigestion,  but  such 
serious  diseases  as  neurasthenia  itself,  may  be  set  up  by 
the  highly  poisonous  discharges  from  these  processes  of 
decay. 

Eor  this  reason,  therefore,  the  use  of  the  tooth-brush 
is  absolutely  indispensable,  and  the  question  of  the  best 
kind  of  utensil  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  They 
are  usually  sold  as  soft,  medium,  and  hard  bristle  brushes, 
as  well  as  in  other  varieties,  and  it  will  probably  be 
found  that  a  soft  or  medium  brush,  with  the  bristles  of 
unequal  lengths,  and  not  too  closely  placed  together,  will 
answer  all  requirements. 

The  method  of  using  it  is  rather  important,  because, 
although  friction  in  a  horizontal  direction  is  essential, 
still  a  vertical  movement  so  as  to  get  the  bristles  well 
in  between  the  teeth  will  be  found  to  be  of  much 
greater  value.  These  two  movements  should  be  carried 
out  not  only  on  the  outside  but  the  inside  of  tlie  teeth, 
and  the  space  behind  the  last  upper  molar  teeth  must 
not  be  forgotten. 

The  brush  may  simply  be  dipped  in  water,  or  salt  and 
water,  but  it  is  best  to  employ  a  good  tooth  powder  of 
such  a  consistency  as  to  produce  a  certain  amount  of 
polishing  effect.  The  basis  of  most  tooth  powders  is 
powdered  chalk,  or  urris  root,  and  some  simple  antiseptic 
like  borax,  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  carbolic  acid,  should  be 


298      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

mixed  with  it  to  destroy  as  many  bacteria  as  possible 
Precipitated  chalk,  which  is  obtained  chiefly  by  the  pro- 
cess of  softening  hard  domestic  waters,  is  better  than  pre- 
pared chalk,  because  it  is  crystalline  and  able  to  remove 
foreign  matter  without  affecting  the  enamel  injuriously. 
A  simple  preparation  is  as  follows : — 
Camphor,  1  oz. ;  precipitated  chalk,  9  oz. 
Here  is  a  sample  of  an  antiseptic  tooth  powder,  useful 
for  smokers: — 

Menthol,  3    grs. ;    thymol,  1 0    grs, ;    camphor,    1 0 
grs. ;  salicylic  acid,  ^  drm. ;  powdered  cuttle-fish, 
2   drms. ;  powdered   white  soap,    2   drms. ;  pre- 
cipitated chalk,  2  drms. ;  otto  of  roses,  4  drops. 
Lotions,  pastes,  and  soaps  can  also  be  used,  and  appeal 
to  many. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  the  brush,  once  a  day  at 
least,  and  preferably  at  bedtime,  a  piece  of  waxed  dental 
floss  should  be  passed  between  the  teeth,  so  as  to  remove 
all  foreign  matter  which  the  brush  may  have  missed, 
although  it  is  important  not  to  use  it  too  vigorously,  in 
case  the  gums  be  cut  or  irritated.  Then  twice  a  week  a 
piece  of  orange  wood,  charged  with  the  tooth  powder  or 
some  powdered  pumice,  should  be  rubbed  over  the  surface 
of  each  tooth  so  as  to  remove  any  roughness  or  irregular- 
ity in  the  surface.  Finally,  the  mouth  should  be  rinsed 
with  an  antiseptic  solution,  and  the  simplest  for  this 
purpose  is  the  old-fashioned  tincture  of  myrrh  and 
borax.     This  is  a  good  recipe : — 

Glycerine    of  borax,   1   oz. ;    tincture  of   krameria, 

^  oz. ;  eau  de  Cologne,  4  oz. ;  tincture  of  myrrh, 

15  oz. 

A    more    modern    and    extremely    useful    mouth    wash 

consists  of  equal  parts  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  (10  vol. 

solution)  and  water. 


CLEANLINESS  299 

If  all  these  practices  were  taught  at  an  early  stage  and  The  In- 
carried  out  till  late  in  life,  not  only  would  dentists  have  abie^°^' 
much  less  work  to  do,  but  even  doctors  might  be  driven  Dentist. 
to    bewail    their    lack     of    employment.     Nevertheless, 
regular  visitations  to  the  dentist  at  least  twice  a  year, 
and  if  possible  four  times  a  year,  should  be  a  rule  of  life, 
and  should  be  commenced  even  before  the  permanent  set 
of  teeth  have  begun    to  appear.     Irregularities  in  the 
position  of  the  teeth  are  then  easily  corrected,  and  over- 
crowding avoided,  thus  preventing  deformities  which  are 
difficult    to    overcome   at  a    later    date.     With   such  a 
practice,  caries  of  the  teeth  may  be  altogether  obviated, 
and  a  perfect  set  of  teeth  (a  rare  spectacle  in  modern 
life)  obtained  and  preserved. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  teeth  have  become  so  rotten 
that  it  is  necessary  to  extract  them,  great  and  permanent 
damage  is  done  to  the  opposing  set  of  teeth,  because 
those,  especially  in  the  upper  jaw,  begin  to  drop  down 
for  lack  of  opposition.  In  these  circumstances,  artificial 
teeth  become  a  necessity,  not  only  because  mastication 
can  be  performed  all  the  better  with  them,  but  to  keep 
the  proper  shape  of  jaws,  teeth,  and  mouth. 

This  is  none  the  less  reason  for  attending  to  the  cleanli- 
ness not  only  of  the  remaining  teeth,  but  also  of  the  artificial 
plate,  which  should  be  taken  out  each  night  at  bedtime, 
and  allowed  to  soak  in  a  glass  of  water  with  some  harm- 
less antiseptic  overuight,  being  well  brushed  and  re- 
placed in  the  morning.  Poisons  from  secretions  of  the 
mouth  and  decomposing  food  adhering  to  an  artificial  set 
of  teeth  are  no  less  harmful  than  those  on  the  ordinary 
teeth. 

The  student  of  this  subject  is  sometimes  tempted  to 
ask  whether,  if  the  teeth  were  put  to  the  use  Nature 
intended  for  them,  by  selecting  the  proper  kinds  of  food, 


300      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

any  artificial  methods  of  cleansing  them  would  be 
necessary  at  all.  It  has,  however,  been  demonstrated 
that  in  all  nations  and  in  all  climes,  on  all  kinds  of  diet, 
caries  is  quite  common.  Vegetarianism,  which  by  many 
is  claimed  as  the  only  natural  diet  of  man,  has  been 
shown  to  induce  a  worse  condition  of  the  teeth  than 
mixed  feeding,  and  so  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion 
that  although  the  food  may  be  a  prime  factor  in  the 
health  of  the  teeth,  it  is  not  everything.  What  is 
becoming  abundantly  apparent  every  day  is  that  soft 
pulpy  foods,  which  are  too  hot  or  too  cold,  or  require  no 
mastication,  are  bad  not  only  for  the  teeth  but  for  the 
digestion,  and  that  those  foods  which  demand  the  most 
mastication  are  most  easily  digested,  and,  as  a  further 
compensation,  guarantee  the  most  faultless  teeth. 
Nature  always  paves  the  way  for  the  removal  of  parts 
which  are  useless  or  not  used.  It  is  a  wise  poUcy  to  eat 
fruit  at  the  close  of  each  meal,  as  it  cleanses  the  teeth 
from  the  remnants  of  starchy  foods,  which  have  a 
tendency  to  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  enamel. 

Acid  fruits  and  drinks  should  never  be  used  at  bed- 
time, without  subsequently  brushing  the  teeth  carefully 
to  prevent  inroads  in  the  enamel. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  importance 
of  cleanliness  in  the  nasal  organ,  both  externally  and 
internally.  "What  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  the 
complexion  will  cover  the  ground  so  far  as  the  value  of 
the  nose  as  an  item  of  personal  appearance  is  concerned, 
and  what  must  now  be  said  will  deal  with  its  function 
of  preventing  the  entrance  of  the  death-dealing  dust  into 
the  stomach  and  lungs. 

Whatever  pleasure  may  be  obtained  from  the  nose  as 
the  organ  of  smell  is  frequently  counterbalanced  by  its 
equal  power  of  perceiving  disagreeable  odours,  and  this 


CLEANLINESS  301 

capacity  may  be  so  pronounced  as  to  obscure  the  chief 
function  of  the  nose,  which  is  undoubtedly  its  powerful 
filtering  properties.  Its  anatomy,  indeed,  is  chiefly  directed 
toward  this  end,  as  it  is  divided  into  two  cavities,  lined 
with  a  freely  secreting  mucous  membrane,  each  nostril 
being  carefully  guarded  at  its  entrance  by  numerous 
hairs,  called  vibrissse.  Each  cavity  is  divided  by  the 
shelf-like  projection  of  the  turbinate  bodies  on  its  outer 
wall  into  three  chambers,  the  lower  being  specially  con- 
cerned with  breathing  and  the  reception  of  tears,  and 
the  upper  two  with  the  sense  of  smell.  These  two 
regions  of  the  nose  are  distinctly  separated  from  one 
another,  and  it  is  always  possible  to  tell,  by  examination 
under  the  microscope,  from  which  region  a  piece  of 
mucous  membrane  has  been  snipped. 

The  respiratory  portion  is  covered  by  mucous  mem- 
brane with  a  surface  coating  of  ciliated  epithelium 
somewhat  similar  to  that  on  the  bronchial  tubes,  and 
the  air,  as  it  passes  in  through  the  nose,  is  divided  into 
two  streams,  the  greater  portion  passing  directly  along 
the  partition  between  the  nostrils  to  the  lungs,  and  only 
a  small  quantity  passing  up  into  the  olfactory  region. 
When  air  is  breathed,  as  it  ought  to  be,  through  the 
nose,  it  is  altered  in  some  important  characteristics : — 

(1)  It  becomes  warmer. 

(2)  It  is  moistened  with  watery  vapour  almost  to 

the  point  of  saturation. 

(3)  It  is  freed  from  its  particles  and  germs,  not 

only  because  they  are  entangled  with  the 
hairs,  but  because  they  are  detained  by  the 
moist  mucous  membrane,  and  where  this 
membrane  is  healthy  and  the  mucus  in  good 
quantity  and  quality,  the  germs  are  practi- 
cally killed  on  the  spot. 


302      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

The  tongue  is  the  organ  of  taste,  but  the  appreciation 
of  flavour  demands  the  co-operation  of  the  sense  of  smell 
in  addition,  and  this  explains  why  it  is  impossible  to 
taste  one's  food  properly  when  one  has  a  cold  in  the  head. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  so  acute  that  it  is  possible  to 
perceive  musk  to  the  amount  of  the  two-millionth  part  of 
a  milligramme,  which  of  itself  is  an  infinitesimal  quantity, 
and  it  is  easy  to  detect  one  part  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen in  a  million  parts  of  air.  But  other  substances, 
such  as  ambergris  and  mercaptan,  may  be  detected  in  still 
smaller  quantities.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  say  just  how 
the  sense  of  smell  is  stimulated,  but  we  know  that  it  is 
possible  to  appreciate  non-pathogenic  bacteria,  whilst  the 
disease-producing  or  pathogenic  bacteria  cannot  be 
smelled. 

Many  different  kinds  of  pathogenic  bacteria  have  been 
discovered  in  the  nose,  and,  if  not  killed  by  the  mucus, 
may  penetrate  into  the  tissues  or  be  swallowed,  and  thus 
set  up  disease,  e.g.  diphtheria,  measles,  cholera,  typhoid 
fever,  etc.  They  and  they  alone  are  responsible  for 
inciting  the  disease,  hence  it  is  erroneous  to  talk  of 
catching  diphtheria  by  inhaling  a  bad  odour,  as  the  smell 
itself  is  incapable  of  setting  up  the  disease. 

Excess  of  mucus  and  tears  must  either  be  swallowed 
or  trickle  out  of  the  nostrils,  and  man  possesses  the 
doubtful  honour  of  being  the  only  animal  who  uses  a 
handkerchief,  which  of  all  the  articles  introduced  by 
civilisation  is  the  most  filthy.  How  much  disease  is 
spread  by  this  little  square  of  silk,  cotton,  or  linen,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  estimate,  and  the  special  pockets 
and  receptacles  retained  for  stowing  away  the  handker- 
chief must  be  saturated  with  disease-producing  matter 
beyond  measure. 

The  use  of  Japanese  paper  \handkerchiefs  for  ordinary 


CLEAiNLINESS  303 

purposes  is  no  less  demanded  by  the  laws  of  health  than 
by  the  dictates  of  refinement.  But  who  will  be  the 
courageous  pioneer  to  start  it  ? 

To  be  a  health-producing  and  not  a  disease-provoking  The  Evils 
organ,  the  nasal  passages  must  be  kept  quite  free — a  gj-Sing. 
condition  that  is  rarely  complied  with.  In  a  child  the 
chief  cause  of  obstruction  is  to  be  found  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  throat  or  pharynx  communicating  with  the 
posterior  nasal  cavities,  and  is  due  to  an  exaggeration  of 
the  pharyngeal  or  third  tonsil,  adenoid  growth  being  the 
result.  This  is  productive  of  mouth  breathing,  with  all 
its  disadvantages,  and,  if  not  rectified  by  operation  or 
otherwise,  leads  to  the  production  of  deformity,  with 
some  or  all  of  the  following  characteristics — a  small  nose, 
a  narrow  upper  jaw  with  protruding  front  teeth,  a  stupid 
expression,  and,  worst  of  all,  a  faulty  expansion  of  the 
chest  wall,  producing  pigeon  breast. 

From  what  we  have  already  said  regarding  mouth 
breathing,  it  will  be  seen  that,  when  respiration  takes 
place  through  the  mouth,  the  valuable  features  imparted 
to  the  air  are  lost,  namely,  the  warmth  and  moisture ; 
the  irritants  extracted  from  the  air  also  are  retained. 
Hence  cold,  dry,  dusty,  germ -laden  air  is  impinged  right 
on  the  back  of  the  throat,  and  not  only  sets  up 
inflammations  of  manifold  kinds,  but  likewise  is  directly 
responsible  for  the  reception  of  infectious  disease.  Not 
the  least  of  its  disadvantages  is  that  it  is  contributory 
to  the  still  further  contraction  of  the  nasal  cavity,  by 
reason  of  thickening  of  the  mucous  membrane,  growth 
of  polypi,  and  other  well-known  effects. 

No  more  certain  means  exists  for  the  production  of  a 

cold  in  the  head  than  this  very  mouth  breathing,  and 

this  again  is  apt  to  set  up  additional  catarrh,  so  that 

even  in  a  nose  devoid  of  any  serious  pathological  defects 

20 


304      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

which  can  be  remedied  by  operation,  there  is  much  need 
for  some  simple  subsidiary  means  to  prevent  all  the 
dangerous  consequences  of  nasal  catarrh.  This  subject 
will  be  dealt  with  more  fully  in  the  next  chapter  on 
"  Protection,"  but,  as  it  is  a  very  powerful  contributory 
factor  to  the  production  of  disease,  some  means  other 
than  the  simple  propulsion  of  mucus  into  a  handkerchief 
may  easily  be  adopted  with  the  greatest  benefit  to  health. 

For  this  reason,  in  large  cities,  or  where  one  is 
unusually  exposed  to  the  inhalations  of  excessive 
quantities  of  dust,  the  more  or  less  regular  cleansing 
of  the  nose  by  a  simple  alkaline  saline  solution  is  of 
great  advantage.  This  is  easily  made  by  mixing  together 
one  ounce  each  of  borax,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and 
common  salt,  and  dissolving  a  saltspoonful  of  this 
powder  in  a  third  of  a  tumbler  full  of  lukewarm 
water.  Then,  by  shghtly  tilting  up  the  tumbler,  the 
solution  can  be  easily  sniffed  through  the  nose  and 
brought  out  by  the  mouth.  The  nose  should  now 
be  blown  very  gently,  and  occasionally  the  following 
ointment  should  be  painted  into  the  nostrils,  taking 
care  that  the  brush  is  pushed  backwards  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  lower  lobe  of  the  ear : — 

Menthol,  tannic  acid,  of  each  5  grs. ;  eucal}-|jtus 
oil,  2-  drm. ;  vaseline,  1  oz= 
This  is  not  only  strongly  antiseptic  and  astringent 
where  the  mucous  membrane  is  too  thick,  but  is 
likewise  useful  in  the  prevention  of  crust  formation — a 
prolific  cause  of  disease,  leading  to  constant  picking  of 
the  nose,  and  the  production  of  boils  and  more  serious 
evils  still,  on  account  of  the  raw  surface  favourable  to 
absorption  which  is  thereby  left. 

The  hygiene  of  the  eyes  and  ears  has  been  treated 
exhaustively  in  the  chapter  on  "  Eest,"  but  to  complete 


CLEANLINESS  305 

the  picture  of  cleanliness  it  will  be  requisite  to  deal 
briefly  with  each  of  these  departments  here. 

Little  need  be  said  in  connection  with  the  cleanliness 
of  the  eyes  under  normal  conditions,  because  nothing 
further  is  required  than  the  use  of  the  same  means  as 
were  mentioned  when  writing  of  face  washing.  But 
one  is  constantly  being  asked  how  to  make  the  eyes 
stronger,  whether  hot  or  cold  water  should  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  what  is  the  best  lotion  for 
strengthening  them. 

These  questions  usually  proceed  from  people  who 
have  some  little  irritation  of  the  eyelids  or  conjimctiva, 
i.e.  the  thin  transparent  mucous  membrane  which  lines 
the  front  of  the  eyeballs  and  is  reflected  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  eyehds.  This  trouble  is  quite  as 
frequently  caused  by  some  error  of  refraction  in  the 
eyes,  producing  strain  in  their  use,  as  from  exposure  to 
such  irritants  as  cold  winds  or  dust  of  varied  kinds. 

When  the  eyes  are  perfectly  healthy  there  is  not  the 
slightest  necessity  for  using  any  eye  lotion,  or  for 
opening  them  under  water  either  hot  or  cold.  Indeed, 
this  latter  expedient  is  quite  as  likely  to  set  up 
inflammation  as  not,  just  as  exposure  to  cold  winds 
and  draughts  of  one  kind  or  another  is  apt  to  bring 
about  irritation  in  highly  susceptible  people.  In  this 
latter  case  the  irritation  may  be  due  to  the  impinging  on 
the  delicate  conjunctiva  of  minute  particles  of  dust,  which 
cannot  be  dealt  with  by  the  ordinary  processes  of  lachry- 
mation  and  winking.  Sufferers  from  this  cause  should 
keep  a  simple  eye  lotion  of  an  antiseptic  and  astringent 
character  on  the  dressing  table  and  use  it  frequently. 
Probably  the  best  is  composed  of  1  drm.  of  boric 
acid  dissolved  in  6  oz.  of  boiled  water  and  allowed 
to  cool.     A  few    drops    of    this,  sucked  up  by  an   eye 


306      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

dropper — of  which  there  are  now  many  forms  on  the 
market — can  be  squirted  into  the  eyes  two  or  three 
times  a  dsCy,  the  head  being  held  well  back  and  the  eye- 
lids separated  by  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
hand,  the  right  being  used  for  instilling  the  drops. 
Before  closing  the  eyelids  the  eyeballs  should  be 
rotated  slowly  until  the  solution  finds  its  way  into 
every  corner  of  the  eye. 

Where  such  simple  means  do  not  suffice  to  keep  the 
eyes  perfectly  comfortable,  then  an  oculist,  i.e.  a 
medical  man  practising  eye  diseases  as  a  speciality, 
should  be  consulted  with  a  view  to  discovering  the  real 
cause  and  prescribing  spectacles  if  necessary.  In 
conclusion,  it  may  be  added  that  it  is  a  very  refreshing 
practice  to  bathe  the  eyes  first  thing  in  the  morning 
and  last  thing  at  night,  and  at  the  same  time  to  massage 
the  eyeball  gently  through  the  closed  eyelids. 
The  Ear.  Although  there  is  a  much  greater  tendency  to  the 
accumulation  of  foreign  matter  in  the  ear  than  in  the  eye, 
still  it  could  be  kept  clean  quite  as  effectively  by 
Nature's  methods  if  we  only  left  her  alone  and  ceased 
to  irritate  her  with  our  blundering  and  meddlesome 
interference. 

The  external  ear  consists  of  the  projecting  auricle 
popularly  called  the  ear,  and  the  depressed  canal  called 
the  external  auditory  meatus,  which  penetrates  for  a 
little  more  than  an  inch  inwards  in  a  curved  direction. 
At  its  inner  end  is  the  drumhead  or  membrana  tympani, 
and  its  walls  are  lined  with  a  modified  form  of  skin, 
supplied  at  the  outer  part  with  hairs  and  glands, 
similar  to  the  sweat  glands  of  the  skin.  It  is  very 
narrow  and  much  curved,  and  this,  along  with  the  hairs 
and  the  wax-covered  walls,  serves  to  keep  out  most 
foreign  bodies  from  the  delicate  structures  within. 


CLEANLINESS  307 

The  cerumen  or  ear-wax  is  a  thin  yellowish  fluid 
formed  by  the  glands  aforesaid,  which  immediately  upon 
secretion  begins  to  thicken  by  evaporation  and  mixing 
with  the  epidermal  scales.  The  yellowish  paste  thus 
formed  is  slowly  propelled  to  the  outside  by  the  little 
hairs  and  by  the  movement  of  the  jaw  in  eating,  and, 
unless  by  misguided  efforts  at  removal,  is  not  in  the 
least  likely  to  reach  as  far  as  the  drum,  as  the  inner 
third  of  the  canal  does  not  secrete  wax  and  the  drum 
itself  is  provided  with  a  vital  mechanism  for  pushing  its 
own  epidermal  scales  to  the  outside. 

In  any  case,  wax  is  unlikely  to  accumulate  in  a 
perfectly  healthy  ear,  but  where  for  any  reason  there  is 
excessive  secretion  of  cerumen  or  an  inordinate  amount 
of  dust  is  allowed  to  penetrate  the  canal,  accumulations 
of  wax  are  liable  to  take  place.  This  may  go  on  for  a 
long  time  without  the  patient  becoming  aware  of  it,  and 
without  even  losing  any  acuteness  of  hearing.  When, 
however,  the  canal  is  quite  blocked,  deafness  results,  and 
this  may  happen  quite  suddenly  if  water  be  allowed  to 
penetrate  into  the  ear,  because  it  rapidly  swells  up  the 
ceruminons  mass,  bringing  a  sudden  deafness  and 
frequently  pain  from  pressure  on  the  drum,  as  well  as 
a  feeling  of  fulness  in  the  head,  ringing  of  the  ears 
and  giddiness.  If  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  has 
obtained  entrance,  the  mass  may  soon  become  shrunken 
again,  and  the  above  symptoms  disappear — to  reappear 
when  more  moisture  or  even  damp  air  during  wet 
weather  gains  admission. 

In  simple  cases  effectual  syringing  of  the  ear  will 
soon  remove  the  mass  and  restore  comfort.  Where  the 
plug  is  very  hard  and  firmly  impacted  its  removal 
should  not  be  immediately  attempted,  and  it  is  much 
wiser  to  instruct  the  patient  to  instil  into  the  ear  three 


3o8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

times  a  day  for  three  days  a  few  drops  of  glycerine  of 
borax,  heated  by  pouring  them  into  a  warm  spoon.  A 
little  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  glycerine,  in  lukewarm 
water,  acts  in  the  same  way.  But  it  is  unwise  to  employ 
oil  of  any  kind.  The  water  for  syringing  should  be 
about  110°  F.,  and  fairly  vigorous  efforts  are  required 
to  expel  the  wax,  but  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against 
too  forcible  measures  in  case  inflammation  be  set  up. 
Sometimes  even  fainting  accompanies  the  little  operation, 
and  the  process  should  be  immediately  stopped  and  the 
patient  laid  flat  on  the  back  for  a  short  time. 

Where  these  simple  measures  are  not  successful  in 
removing  the  wax,  a  medical  man  should  be  at  once 
consulted,  who  will  probably  succeed  by  more  effective 
instruments. 

At  no  time  should  any  sharp  or  blunt  instrument  be 
inserted  into  the  ear  by  other  than  a  medical  man,  as 
such  a  practice  is  not  only  most  reprehensible,  but 
attended  with  considerable  danger.  But  where  a  small 
accumulation  of  soft  wax  is  very  close  to  the  external 
orifice,  there  is  no  harm  in  a  large-headed  pin,  well 
covered  with  cotton  wool  or  wrapped  deftly  in  a  pocket 
handkerchief,  being  gently  used  as  a  lever  for  its  ex- 
traction. After  syringing,  a  little  piece  of  cotton  wool 
may  be  inserted  for  a  few  hours,  but  otherwise  the  use 
of  cotton  wool  is  deleterious,  interfering  with  the  proper 
exit  of  the  wax,  and,  being  frequently  forgotten,  it  is  apt 
to  become  the  basis  of  a  collection  of  wax. 

Pkaotical  Summary. 

1,  Daily  cleansing  is  necessary,  because  we  live  in  an 
atmosphere  of  dust,  which  coats  our  skin  and  fills  our 
eyes,  nose,  and  scalp,  thus  obstructing  their  functions. 


CLEANLINESS  309 

2.  Friction  with  a  good  pair  of  horse-hair  gloves  is 
an  excellent  preliminary  to  bathing. 

3.  A  morning  bath  is  an  absolute  necessity,  but 
should  rarely  be  practised  in  cold  water,  which  is  not 
sufficiently  cleansing. 

4.  Eeaction  is  deceptive,  and  our  feelings  just  after 
the  bath  are  not  the  real  test. 

5.  Perfect  cleanliness  of  the  skin  can  only  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  warm  or  lukewarm  water,  plenty  of  soap 
and  a  loofah  or  scrubbing  brush.  This  may  be  followed 
by  a  cold  shower  or  a  rapid  cold  sponge- down. 

6.  Soap  should  be  superfatted  and  free  from  excess  of 
alkali. 

7.  Turkish  baths  are  valuable  on  occasion,  but  only 
when  special  precautions  are  taken. 

8.  A  hot  reclining  bath  should  be  taken  once  or  twice 
a  week. 

9.  Sea  bathing  is  valuable,  but  grave  risks  attend  it 
when  too  prolonged, 

10.  In  a  city  the  face  should  be  washed  at  least  twice 
a  day. 

11.  Cleanliness,  pure  healthy  blood,  good  food,  and 
exercise  in  the  open  air  are  the  secrets  of  a  good 
complexion. 

1 2.  The  best  "  skin  foods  "  are  taken  internally,  not 
applied  externally. 

13.  Lotions  for  freckles,  sunburn,  etc.,  and  cold  cream 
serve  useful  purposes. 

14.  Acne  is  chiefly  due  to  careless  washing. 

15.  Eed  nose  may  be  caused  by  indigestion  in  some 
form,  probably  aggravated  by  nasal  catarrh. 

16.  Blushing  is  an  evidence  of  a  badly  balanced 
nervous  system,  and  is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of 
lack  of  vigour. 


310      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

17.  The  hair  requires  careful  daily  combing  and 
brushing  and  a  weekly  wash, 

18.  The  hands  should  be  washed  at  least  before  every 
meal. 

19.  The  feet  must  be  washed  each  day  by  those  who 
do  not  take  a  morning  bath. 

20.  The  teeth  must  be  brushed  each  evening  before 
bedtime,  using  a  good  tooth  powder,  and  in  addition 
first  thing  in  the  morning  without  the  powder.  It  is 
probably  a  counsel  of  perfection,  but  nevertheless 
hygienic,  likewise  to  brush  them  after  each  meal.  The 
occasional  use  of  silk  dental  floss  is  valuable  for  effective 
cleansing  between  the  teeth. 

21.  The  nose  should  be  washed  out  once  a  week  or 
oftener  by  a  warm  saline  alkaline  solution  which  keeps 
the  nasal  passages  free  and  the  mucous  membrane 
healthy. 

22.  The  eyes  require  little  attention  for  cleansing 
purposes  other  than  that  given  in  the  daily  washing  of 
the  face,  but  when  much  used  are  improved  by  a 
morning  and  evening  douche. 

23.  The  ears  should  not  be  cleansed  from  wax  by 
picking  with  pins,  but  where  simple  safe  measures  are 
unavailing  should  be  syringed  with  lukewarm  water. 


CHAPTEE    IX. 

PROTECTION. 

LAW  VIII. — "For  purposes  of  protection  clothing 
should  be  worn  which  is  neither  too  heavy  nor 
too  light." 

MAN    is    a    homoiothermal     or    "  warm-blooded "" -Warm- 
aniraal,  i.e.  one  with  a   constant    tempeiature,  flooded " 
in  contra-distinction  to  a  "  cold-blooded  "  animal,  whose  "  Cold- 
temperature    varies   with    its    surroundings.       In    these  ^^°°'^®^-' 
degenerate    days    he    maintains    his    temperature    at    a 
constant  rate  solely  by  means  of  wearing  clothes,  which 
enable  him  to  keep  next  his  skin  a  warm  layer  of  air 
about   90°  r.,  whereas    without    clothes,    even   although 
the  external  temperature  should  be  as  high  as  80°  F., 
he  would  be  quite  unable  to  keep  the  heat  of  his  blood 
at  the  normal  level. 

It  will  be  necessary,  therefore,  to  consider  the  whole 
problem  of  the  manufacture  and  dissipation  of  heat,  in 
order  fully  to  appreciate  the  value,  nay  the  necessity,  of 
clothes. 

Note  in  passing  that  heat  is  a  by-product  and 
not  a  special  manufacture,  a  by-product  of  those  life 
processes  carried  on  within  the  cells  and  collectively 
designated  "  metabolism,"  Certain  physical  and  chemical 
changes  take  place  in  those  minute  particles  of  proto- 


312      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

plasm,  causing  them  to  assimilate  the  material  by  which 
they  are  surrounded  and  work  it  up  into  their  own 
constitution,  making  it  indeed  a  part  of  themselves.  It 
is  then  still  further  changed  by  elaborate  and  recondite 
processes  not  yet  fully  understood,  whereby  its  complex 
constituents  are  broken  down  into  simpler  elements, 
some  of  which  are  thrown  off  into  the  blood. 

This  building-up  or  "  anabolic  "  and  breaking-down  or 
"  katabolic "  process  goes  on  as  long  as  life  lasts.  In 
fact,  life  is  the  resultant  of  the  whole  series  of  changes, 
a  vital  phenomenon  so-called,  but  clearly  dependent  on 
physical  changes.      (See  Chapter  IV.,  p.  113). 

Now,  chemical  union  sets  free  heat,  and  chemical 
decomposition  renders  it  latent  or  causes  it  to  be  absorbed, 
and  the  nett  result  is  that  much  more  heat  is  produced 
than  is  required  to  maintain  the  body  temperature  at 
the  usual  level.  Indeed,  if  it  were  not  constantly  being 
lost  it  is  calculated  that  a  10 -stone  man  would  reach 
the  boiling-point  in  thirty-five  hours. 

The  more  "  vitality  "  a  man  possesses,  the  more  heat 
his  body  produces,  and  anything  which  interferes  with 
the  vital  activity  of  his  tissues,  such  as  the  use  of 
narcotic  drugs,  causes  a  lessened  heat  production.  It 
is  in  this  way  that  alcohol  lowers  a  man's  temperature 
instead  of  raising  it,  as  common  ignorance  supposes — a 
fact  which  attaches  great  risk  to  the  practice  of  thrusting 
an  inebriated  person  into  a  cold  cell.  There  is  great 
danger  in  such  a  case  of  finding  that  death  has  occurred 
during  the  night,  owing  to  the  lessened  heat  production 
and  the  increased  heat  loss. 

No  life  can  exist  without  the  production  of  heat,  and 
hence  there  is,  strictly  speaking,  no  such  thing  as  a 
"  cold-blooded  "  animal,  that  term  being  used  to  indicate 
one  whose  temperature  varies  with  its  surroundings  and 


PROTECTION  313 

which  is  therefore  limited  in  its  movements.  The  great 
advantage  of  a  constant  temperature  lies  Id  the  fact 
that  its  possessor  is  more  or  less  independent  of  climate, 
and  can  travel  to  and  fro  on  the  face  of  the  earth  to 
suit  his  inclinations  and  convenience.  To  ensure  this 
constancy,  a  mechanism  for  the  regulation  of  the  tempera- 
ture is  necessary,  and  exists  in  all  the  higher  animals. 
Before  it  is  fully  developed,  as  e.g.  in  children  pre- 
maturely born,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  newly  born 
children,  artificial  warmth  must  be  applied  to  keep  the 
fires  of  life  burning. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  although  the  temperature 
of  the  higher  animals  is  what  is  called  "  constant,"  in 
no  species  or  individaal  does  it  maintain  an  absolutely 
fixed  level.  For  man  it  may  be  set  down  as  98°*6r., 
although  anything  between  97°  F.  and  100°  F.  maybe 
looked  upon  as  normal,  whilst  for  mammals  it  is  102°F., 
and  for  birds  107°F.  No  adequate  explanation  of  this 
difference  has  yet  been  advanced. 

Although  the  temperature  in  man  is  fairly  uniform 
at  98°"6F.,  it  varies  from  hour  to  hour,  attaining  its 
maximum  at  5  p.m.  and  its  minimum  about  2  a.m.,  the 
time  when  the  greatest  number  of  deaths  occurs.  Strange 
to  say,  these  hours  are  reversed  when  a  man  is  com- 
pelled to  earn  his  living  in  a  nocturnal  employment ; 
and  in  the  same  way,  when  day  is  turned  into  night  by 
journeying  to  the  antipodes,  the  rhythm  adjusts  itself 
to  the  new  conditions,  these  facts  going  to  prove  that 
the  variation  is  due  to  fluctuations  in  the  metabolism  of 
the  individual. 

The  manufacture  of  the  heat  takes  place  during  and  The  Manu- 

because  of  the  working  of  the  muscles  and  glands,  and  ^^ture  of 

Heat, 
the  heat  is  given  up  to  the  blood,  by  means  of  which 

it  is  carried  to  the  rest  of  the  body.      It  is  not  therefore 


314      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

increased  heat  production,  but  effective  heat  distribution, 
that  gives  us  the  nice  comfortable  glow  during  and  after 
exercise,  the  bodily  tissues  themselves  being  indeed  bad 
conductors  and  only  responding  to  the  warm  blood 
pumped  into  them.  For  purposes  of  heat-distribution 
there  could  be  no  finer  medium  than  the  blood,  which 
finds  its  way  into  the  furthermost  recesses  of  the  body, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  even  to  prick  the  surface  without 
causing  some  to  escape. 

The  blood  is  really  a  fluid  medium  for  carrying 
oxygen  and  nutriment  to  the  tissues  and  bearing  waste 
matters  away  from  them,  and  this  is  effected  by  means 
of  blood  vessels,  a  system  of  tubes  running  all  through 
the  body.  Blood  is  an  opaque  sticky  fluid,  consisting 
of  a  fluid  portion,  straw-coloured  and  transparent,  called 
"  plasma "  (containing  saline,  saccharine,  and  fatty  con- 
stituents), and  a  more  solid  portion  made  up  of  red  and 
white  corpuscles. 

The  red  corpuscles  are  biconcave  discs,  -gwcr  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  having  embedded  in  them  a  substance 
called  haemoglobin  which  has  an  extraordinary  affinity 
for  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  These  red  corpuscles  are  the 
means  whereby  the  oxygen  is  conveyed  to  the  body  tissues. 

The  white  corpuscles  are  a  little  larger  than  the  red 
ones,  globular  in  shape,  and  much  fewer  in  number,  and 
they  contain  one  or  two  nuclei.  They  have  the  power 
of  changing  their  shape  and  penetrating  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels,  so  that  they  can  the  more  effectively 
carry  on  their  function  of  scavengers  for  the  body. 
Metchnikoff  christened  them  "  phagocytes,"  because  they 
eat  up  the  microbes,  dirt,  and  other  foreign  matter 
gaining  access  to  the  body,  and  deposit  it  safely  in  the 
lymphatic  glands,  there  to  be  elaborated  into  harmless 
substances. 


PROTECTION  315 

Blood  remains  fluid  so  long  as  it  is  within  the  blood 
vessels,  but  clots  whenever  it  is  extruded  from  them, 
and  if  allowed  to  remain  still  in  a  vessel  for  twenty-four 
hours  it  forms  a  dense  firm  clot,  surrounded  by  a 
straw-coloured  fluid  called  the  serum.  The  clot  consists 
of  the  albumin  with  the  corpuscles  entangled  in  its 
meshes,  and  the  serum  consists  of  all  the  other  fluid 
portion.  It  is  in  virtue  of  this  remarkable  property 
of  clotting  that  cessation  of  haemorrhage  takes  place, 
and  it  is  much  encouraged  by  the  bleeding  parts  being 
kept  at  rest,  freely  exposed  to  the  air  and  subjected 
to  pressure  by  some  foreign  body.  Blood  is  capable  of 
being  rendered  impure  by  eating  the  wrong  kinds  of 
food,  e.g.  too  much  meat  and  excess  of  purins,  by  inhaling 
foul  air,  and  by  taking  little  or  no  exercise  and  thus 
preventing  the  excretion  of  the  waste  matter  contained 
in  it. 

The  system  of  closed  tubes  containing  the  blood  is  The  Pump 
provided  with  a  pump,  called  the  heart,  which  by  means  g^,*^^ 
of  its  contractions  keeps  up  the  circulation  through  the 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins.  The  heart  is  a  hollow 
muscle  consisting  of  four  cavities,  two  of  which  (for 
collecting  the  blood)  are  called  auricles,  and  two  (for 
propelling  the  blood  into  the  body)  called  ventricles. 
The  right  auricle  collects  the  venous  blood  from  the 
body  and  pumps  it  into  the  right  ventricle,  whence  it 
is  propelled  into  the  lungs.  Here  it  is  subjected  to 
the  action  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  which  becomes 
intimately  associated  with  the  haemoglobin  of  the  red  blood 
corpuscles,  and  at  the  same  time  loses  its  carbonic  acid 
and  thus  becomes  arterial  blood,  flov/ing  into  the  left 
auricle.  Thence  it  makes  its  way  into  the  left  ventricle, 
whence  it  is  pumped  right  through  the  arteries  and  so 
into  the  capillaries   and   tissues  of   the   body.     It   will 


3i6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

thus  be  seen  how  this  simple  mechanism  of  the  circula- 
tion conveys  the  heat  to  every  part  of  the  body,  and, 
whilst  maintaining  the  temperature  at  a  constant  rate, 
is  the  chief  means  whereby  the  heat  is  distributed 
and  lost. 

The  temperature  of  the  body  maintains  its  unvarying 
rate : — 

(1)  By  increasing   or   diminishing   the   production 

of  heat. 

(2)  By    increasing    or     diminishing     the     loss     of 

heat. 

During  the  state  of  repose  quite  75  per  cent,  of  the 
body's  heat  is  produced  by  the  muscles,  while  in  a 
condition  of  activity  this  proportion  is  raised  to  90  per 
cent.  It  is  important  to  remember  that  40  per  cent, 
of  the  body's  weight  is  composed  of  muscle,  5  per  cent, 
of  blood,  and  2  per  cent,  of  brain.  The  use  of  the 
muscles  in  exercise  causes  the  temperature  to  rise 
quickly  above  normal,  but  it  drops  in  a  very  few  minutes 
to  its  accustomed  level.  The  arm-flapping  and  foot- 
stamping  which  one  so  constantly  sees  practised  by  those 
exposed  to  cold  are  methods  of  voluntary  exercise  of 
the  muscular  system  executed  to  raise  the  temperature, 
whereas  shivering  is  an  example  of  involuntary  or  semi- 
involuntary  muscular  exercise  to  serve  the  same  end. 
Such  heat  when  produced  is  quickly  conveyed  by  the 
blood  to  every  part  of  the  body  in  a  normal  person ; 
but  when  the  movement  of  the  blood  is  languid  and  the 
superficial  vessels  are  contracted  either  by  cold  or  under 
the  influence  of  a  supersensitive  nervous  system,  it  is 
not  well  distributed,  and  in  that  case  difficulty  is  found 
in  keeping  warm. 

Cold  as  a  rule  acts  as  a  bracing  agency  or  tonic  to  a 
healthy  man,  causing  a  greater  manufacture  of  heat  in  the 


PROTECTION  317 

muscles  and  glands ;  but  in  some  people  who  are  said  to 
have  a  "  bad  circulation,"  and  in  all  when  the  cold  is  ex- 
cessive, it  has  the  effect  of  paralysing  the  heat-regulating 
mechanism  in  the  same  manner  as  large  doses  of  alcohol. 
>Such  people  may  have  perfectly  strong  hearts  and  efficient 
blood  vessels,  but  they  belong  to  the  class  usually  cate- 
gorised as  nervous,  and  the  small  arteries,  especially  of 
the  extremities,  are  liable  to  a  sudden  contraction  under 
a  very  slight  stimulus,  thus  actually  cutting  off  the  blood 
supply,  with  its  Kfe-giving  heat,  from  the  tissues.  Hence 
their  complaint  of  "  dead  "  or  "  numb  "  fingers,  cold  feet 
and  hands,  cold  ears,  chilblains,  etc.  They  frequently 
also  complain  of  blushing  and  palpitation,  which  are  due 
to  much  the  same  cause,  and  are  embellished  with  red 
noses  and  pale  faces. 

What  most  of  them  require  in  order  to  reinforce  the 
production  of  heat  is  a  series  of  good  square  meals  with 
plenty  of  leisure  to  eat  and  digest  them.  Every  one 
knows  the  stimulating  effect  of  a  good  warm  meal,  which 
supplies  pabulum  not  only  to  nourish  the  tissues,  but 
also  to  warm  the  blood  and  increase  its  heat-giving  and 
circulating  power.  Of  the  three  important  constituents 
of  the  food,  proteins  are  first  in  their  power  of  gener- 
ating heat ;  and  if  we  classify  that  potency  as  twenty, 
then  that  of  carbohydrates  is  ten  and  that  of  fat  seven. 

Of  the  total  amount  of  heat  lost  by  the  body,  the  skin  (2)  Vary- 
is  responsible  for  8  7 "5  per  cent.,  the  lungs  for  10 '7  per  Lof s*of 
cent.,  and  the  excreta  for  1"8  per  cent.     The  skin  is  the  Heat, 
only  channel  which  we  can  easily  control  in  its  loss  of 
heat,  and  that  is  the  medium  utihsed  for  regulating  the 
temperature  in  man. 

Seventy -three  per  cent,  of  the  total  loss  from  the  skin 
is  accounted  for  by  radiation — the  simple  emission  or 
diffusion  of  rays  of  heat,  and  this  is,  of  course,  greater 


3i8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

in  cold  and  dry  air.  Small  people  lose  heat  much  more 
rapidly  by  this  means  than  large  people,  because  they 
have  a  greater  superficial  area  in  proportion  to  their 
size. 

Conduction  is  another  method  whereby  heat  is  lost 
from  the  skin,  and  as  water  is  twenty-eight  times  a 
better  conductor  of  heat  than  air,  much  more  heat  will 
be  lost  from  this  cause  on  a  damp  day  than  on  a  dry 
day.  A  good  layer  of  fat  on  the  outside  of  the  body 
helps  to  preserve  its  heat,  as  fat  is  the  worst  conductor 
in  the  body.  When  the  air  is  in  motion,  as  on  a  cold, 
damp,  windy  day,  a  great  amount  of  heat  is  lost,  as  suc- 
cessive layers  of  cold  air  impinge  on  the  warm  atmos- 
pheric layer  around  the  skin  and  thus  rapidly  cool  it. 
The  same  occurs  in  suffering  from  an  ordinary  draught. 

When  we  realise  that  the  superficial  area  of  all  the 
tiny  sweat  orifices  of  the  body  is  equal  to  10,000  square 
feet,  or  that,  when  placed  end  to  end,  there  are  close 
upon  30  miles  of  sweat  glands,  we  cannot  be  surprised 
to  know  that  from  30  to  50  oz.  of  sweat  are  lost  by 
evaporation  in  a  day.  During  exertion,  however,  this 
may  be  greatly  increased,  and  an  athlete  has  lost  as 
much  as  8  lb.  in  a  seven-hours'  tennis  match  on  a  hot 
day.  It  is  chiefly  in  short,  stout  people  that  evaporation 
of  sweat  is  brought  into  play. 
The  Tunc-  The  chief  function  of  clothing  is  to  diminish  this  great 
tion  of  loss  of  heat  by  the  skin,  but  the  fact  that  the  natives  of 
such  an  inhospitable  climate  as  Tierra  Del  Fuego  in  the 
present  day,  and  our  own  ancestors  in  days  gone  by,  can 
and  did  respectively  exist  without  any  clothing  at  all, 
unless  for  purposes  of  adornment,  is  sufficient  proof  that 
it  is  not  absolutely  essential.  But  as  civilisation  pro- 
gresses, men  live  more  by  their  wits  than  by  the  exercise 
of  their  muscles ;  they  do  not  possess  the  vigorous  con- 


PROTECTION  319 

stitutions  of  their  forbears,  and  they  cannot  afford  to 
expend  their  nervous  energy  only  in  the  direction  of 
manufacturing  heat. 

Clothes  should  lessen  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation 
and  conduction,  and  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with 
evaporation  from  the  skin,  so  as  to  render  the  weather 
warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer,  without  hampering 
the  action  of  the  skin.  For  this  reason  they  should  at 
all  times  be  as  light  as  possible,  and,  whatever  material 
be  selected,  two  important  considerations  must  be  care- 
fully attended  to :  (1)  Clothing  must  be  a  bad  heat  con- 
ductor ;  (2)  it  must  be  a  capable  absorbing  agent. 

(1)  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  clothes  are  The  Value 
not  of  themselves  warm,  but  simply  prevent  the  loss  of  Qap'j^°^^+ 
heat  by  reason  of  being  bad  conductors.  An  investiga- 
tion into  the  heat-conducting  properties  of  materials 
utilised  for  clothing  purposes  demonstrated  that  silk  is 
the  quickest  and  fur  the  slowest  conductor ;  while  linen, 
cotton  wool,  sheep's  wool  and  eider  down  are  slower 
conductors  than  silk  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
mentioned.  One  of  the  slowest  conductors  of  heat  is 
air,  and  Nature  has  taken  advantage  of  this  fact  in  her 
fabrication  of  wool,  fur,  and  feather. 

Air  is  of  the  very  greatest  value  in  retaining  the  heat 
of  the  body,  and  should  be  utilised  not  only  in  the  layer 
of  warm  air  for  which  provision  is  made  between  the 
skin  and  the  garment  worn  next  to  it,  but  also,  if 
possible,  in  the  structure  of  the  fabric  itself.  Where 
this  warm  layer  of  air  is  awanting,  combustion  is  much 
greater  and  cooling  much  quicker,  and  for  this  reason 
tight  garments  are  less  warm  than  loose  ones.  The 
wearing  of  two  thin  garments  will  engender  a  greater 
warmth  than  one  thick  garment,  even  although  their 
combined  weight  is  less, 
21 


320      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Underclothing  should  always  be  woven  loosely,  so  as 
to  contain  as  much  air  as  possible,  and  this  "  cellular  " 
plan  can  be  applied  either  to  wool,  linen,  or  cotton.  A 
thousand  volumes  of  soft  flannel  can  contain  923 
volumes  of  air  as  against  linen,  which  can  only  contain 
723. 
The  Im-  (2)  When  we  realise  that  the  sweat  glands  give  off 
^7w°T  ^^^0^^^  ^^  02-  0^  water  daily  in  the  form  of  vapour  and 
a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  with  fat  and  other 
matters,  we  require  no  more  cogent  reason  for  insisting 
that  clothes  should  have  absorbent  capacity. 

In  this  respect  wool  occupies  a  pre-eminent  position, 
as  it  can  absorb  much  more  water  than  linen,  cotton, 
silk,  without  feeling  wet.  Then,  again,  when  it  is  thor- 
oughly wet  only  2  6  per  cent,  of  its  air-containing  surface 
is  closed  up,  with  the  air  displaced,  as  compared  with 
39  in  silk  and  56  in  linen.  It  is  also  more  difficult  to 
wet,  because  of  the  natural  oil  it  contains  and  the  horny 
covering  of  its  fibres.  Again,  the  evaporation  of  moisture 
proceeds  much  more  slowly  from  woollen  clothing  than 
from  silk,  linen,  or  cotton,  and  so  a  saying  has  arisen  that, 
no  matter  how  cold  and  wet  it  is,  it  is  always  warm  and 
dry.  So  much  has  been  written  and  said  in  favour  of 
cellular  underclothing  made  of  cotton  and  linen  that  it 
has  become  quite  the  fashion  to  decry  the  use  of  wool 
in  the  manufacture  of  such  garments,  but  the  above 
facts  prove  that  wool  still  retains  pride  of  place  as  a 
material  for  underclothing,  and  does  not  hold  its  reputa- 
tion without  warrant. 

There  are  some  current  objections  to  its  use  which 
may  just  be  mentioned.  (1)  Expense.  Even  although 
this  has  rather  advanced  in  recent  years,  in  common 
with  the  price  of  most  articles,  too  much  has  been  made 
of  it,  because,  with  care,  goods  fabricated  of  wool,  can 


PROTECTION  321 

be  made  to  last  longer  than  cotton  or  linen,  whilst  silk 
is  quite  out  of  the  running. 

(2)  Irritation  of  the  skin.  It  is  an  unquestionable 
fact  that  just  at  first  some  people  find  it  produces  intense 
itching,  but  not  only  is  this  a  purely  passing  phenomenon, 
as  the  skin  soon  gets  accustomed  to  it,  but  the  wool 
itself  becomes  less  capable  of  irritating  every  day  it  is 
worn.  In  any  case,  the  objection  may  be  entirely 
obviated  by  wearing  a  net  of  silk  or  other  material  next 
the  skin,  without  losing  any  of  the  unquestionable 
advantages  of  the  wool. 

(3)  When  washed  it  is  apt  to  thicken  and  "  felt." 
This  is  also  quite  true,  but  only  when  great  neglect  is 
displayed  in  the  washing.  In  this  process  soap  should 
never  be  used,  but  ammonia ;  nor  should  great  violence 
be  exercised  in  the  manipulations  in  the  wash-tub.  In 
addition  a  drying  frame  should  be  purchased  and  the 
clothing  spread  over  this  whilst  drying,  which  will 
prevent  any  chance  of  shrinking. 

(4)  It  absorbs,  and  consequently  emits,  odours.  This 
is  also  true  to  a  certain  extent,  but  is  only  markedly 
noticeable  when  for  any  reason  excessive  perspirations 
take  place  and  washing  has  been  postponed  too  long. 

Prominent  among  those  who  oppose  the  use  of  wool 
as  a  material  for  underclothing  is  Dr.  Leonard  Williams, 
who  contends  that  its  capacity  for  absorption  is  much 
inferior  to  cotton  or  linen.  He  relies  upon  the  fact 
that  a  piece  of  flannel  placed  on  water  will  float  because 
it  refuses  to  absorb  this  fluid  for  many  hours,  whereas 
a  piece  of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk  will  sink  almost  im- 
mediately. He  suggests  that  the  incredulous  should 
use  a  flannel  handkerchief  during  their  next  cold  in  the 
head  to  convince  them  of  the  indifferent  absorbing 
qualities   of  wool.     There  is  an  apparent  contradiction 


322      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

between  these  facts  and  those  already  mentioned  in 
favour  of  wool  underclothing,  but  I  think  they  may 
easily  be  reconciled  if  it  be  remembered  that  the  under- 
clothing is  rarely  asked  to  absorb  water  except  in  the 
condition  of  vapour. 
The  There  should  be  at  least  two  layers  of  clothing — what 

of^Hard-  -^^  usually  designated  underclothing — and  the  ordinary 
ening.  outer  garments,  and,  as  constitutions  differ  markedly, 
it  is  wise  for  each  to  study  himself  in  the  dispositioii 
of  these.  Having  seen  the  principles  underlying  correct 
clothing,  it  should  be  obvious  that  there  is  no  specific 
date  on  which  one  should  don  summer  or  winter  garments, 
but  this  date  should  depend  entirely  on  the  temperature 
of  the  external  air,  the  amount  of  humidity  contained 
therein,  and  other  factors  which  will  easily  occur  to  the 
intelligent  mind.  At  least  three  different  thicknesses 
of  underclothing  should  be  in  the  wardrobe  for  summer 
and  winter  and  intermediate  seasons  respectively.  The 
weight  of  the  necessary  clothing  should  be  from  six  to 
twelve  pounds,  depending  upon  the  season  and  habits, 
and  this  can  easily  be  doubled  by  adding  an  overcoat. 
Animals  are  much  better  off  in  this  respect  than  human 
beings  as,  e.g.,  a  dog  of  nine  pounds  weight  has  only  three 
ounces  weight  of  hair. 

It  is  a  very  great  mistake  to  attempt  to  brave  the 
weather  without  clothing  appropriate  to  the  season,  a 
practice  which  arises  from  the  exploded  theory  of  "  harden- 
ing." One  need  not  wait  to  catch  a  chill  before  changing 
the  clothes  The  practice  of  wearing  thin  underclothing 
all  the  year  round  and  donning  no  overcoat  is  most 
reprehensible  and  dangerous.  Even  a  man  with  a  very 
vigorous  constitution  runs  risks  in  such  circumstances, 
and  must  be  possessed  of  a  powerful  digestion  to  cope 
with  the  extra  supply  of  food  required.     Even  in  summer 


PROTECTION  323 

and  in  tropical  climates  it  is  safer  for  most  people  to 
wear  wool  next  the  skin,  especially  in  damp  neighbour- 
hoods. Silk,  cotton,  and  linen  are  very  useful,  but  it  is 
safer  to  wear  thin  wool  and  a  thinner  make  of  cuter 
garment. 

The  colour  of  our  external  clothing  is  a  matter  of 
some  importance.  If  a  piece  of  light  cloth  and  another 
of  dark  cloth  be  placed  upon  snow  it  will  be  found  that 
the  snow  melts  quicker  under  the  dark  cloth,  showing 
that  it  absorbs  heat  better.  Hence  white  or  (khaki) 
yellow  is  more  suitable  wear  for  hot  weather  or  tropical 
climes. 

Underclothing  should  be  changed  about  once  a  week, 
and  the  same  clothing  should  not  be  worn  night  and 
day,  but  be  carefully  hung  up  on  the  back  of  a  chair 
during  the  night-time  to  air. 

The  clothing  of  infants  surely  requires  some  modifica-  infants, 
tion  in  this  enlightened  age.  Too  long  have  the  poor 
mites  been  groaning  under  their  superincumbent  mass 
of  meaningless  garments,  inflicted  upon  them  by  thought- 
less women  who  ought  to  know  that  weight  and  tight- 
ness of  clothes  at  this  age  are  a  handicap  on  growth  as 
well  as  on  activity.  It  is  not  as  if  any  attempt  had 
been  made  to  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  hygienic  science 
in  an  effort  to  clothe  the  newly  born  suitably,  because 
the  array  of  Lilliputian  garments  employed  is  simply  an 
imitation  of  the  garments  worn  by  older  people,  and  it 
can  hardly  be  beyond  the  wit  of  man  or  woman  to  devise 
something  more  suitable  and  healthy. 

All  that  is  absolutely  necessary  is 

(1)  Some  substitute  for  the  hopelessly  tight  binder 
so  often  wound  round  and  round  the  little  abdomen  upon 
the  plea  that  it  is  essential  to  prevent  an  umbilical 
rupture.      Such  can  be  found  at  any  surgical  instrument 


324      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

maker's  shop,  or  can  be  manufactured  out  of  one  or  at 
most  two  layers  of  a  roller  bandage. 

(2)  An  under-garment  composed  of  soft  absorbent 
material,  covering  the  child  from  neck  to  ankle  and 
wrist,  and  fastened  down  the  back. 

(3)  An  upper  garment  of  some  thicker  non-conduct- 
ing material  for  purposes  of  warmth. 

Children  "^^^  clothing  of  children  who  have  passed  the  stage 
and  _  of  infancy  is  about  as  hopelessly  antiquated  as  that  of 
Pains."^"°  their  juniors,  and  the  garments  are  constructed  apparently 
with  a  greater  desire  to  gratify  their  parents'  pride  and 
sense  of  ownership  than  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  health. 
What  is  actually  required  is  some  sensible  loose  non- 
conducting and  absorbent  garment  sufficiently  warm  to 
protect  the  child  from  the  rigours  of  the  weather. 
Instead  of  this  we  are  apt  to  find  what  might  be 
styled  lack  of  clothing,  exemplified  by  an  abbreviated 
upper  garment,  a  long  length  of  bare  leg,  and  a  pair  of 
short  stumpy  white  socks.  Such  barbarous  fashions  are 
very  insufficiently  excused  by  conceptions  of  superficial 
prettiness,  nor  is  the  case  improved  by  invoking  those 
obsolete  ideas  of  "  hardening "  which  have  ushered  so 
many  innocent  little  children  into  an  early  grave,  or  a 
life-time  of  injured  health.  These  little  folks  sustain 
a  greater  loss  of  heat  from  their  proportionately  large 
superficial  area,  and  every  scrap  of  energy  lost  in  this 
way  must  be  made  up  for  by  extra  food,  thus  taxing  the 
organs  of  digestion  and  excretion  beyond  their  limits  of 
endurance. 

A  committee  of  experts  in  Berlin,  after  a  ten  years' 
practical  inquiry  into  the  results  of  "  hardening "  young 
children,  proved  decisively  that  a  greater  percentage  of 
the  "  hardened  "  died  than  of  the  unhardened,  and  that 
the  former  were  infinitely  more  liable  to  disease  in  after 


PROTECTION  32s 

life.  Nothing,  perhaps,  will  avail  to  stop  the  frightful 
holocaust  of  young  lives  until  a  striking  example  is  set 
in  some  exalted  quarter,  and  then  we  may  expect  to  hear 
no  more  of  the  so-called  "  growing  "  pains,  practically  all 
of  which  are  due  to  rheumatism  induced  by  insufficient 
protection  for  the  limbs  of  growing  children. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  enter  into  details  of  all  the 
unsuitable  forms  of  garment  worn  at  this  time  of  life, 
including  the  kilt  and  sailor  suit,  and  others  no  more 
suitable.  Enough  has  been  said  to  emphasise  the 
necessity  for  attending  to  the  principles  of  clothing 
already  laid  down,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  lungs  (at  their  back  parts  particularly),  the 
loins,  and  the  limbs  are  all  carefully  protected  from 
exposure  to  cold  or  a  too  rapid  loss  of  heat. 

Young  girls  are,  as  a  rule,  much  more  sensibly  clad 
than  their  mothers,  because  warmth  with  moderate 
weight,  more  or  less  equally  distributed  over  their 
bodies,  is  usually  the  keynote  of  their  clothing. 

The   most   vulnerable  part  of  a  woman's  clothing   is  Women 
the   long  heavy   bedraggled    skirt   suspended    from   the  corset^ 
middle  of  the  body,  and  this  at  once  brings  us  to  the 
consideration  of  the  point  as  to  whether  the  corset  is  at 
all  admissible  as  an  article  of  attire. 

I  have  given  long  and  careful  consideration  to  this 
question,  and  I  frankly  confess  I  have  not  yet  become  a 
convert  to  the  views  of  the  Hygienic  Dress  League.  I 
admit  at  once  that  the  enormity  worn  by  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  women  of  this  and  other  civilised  countries, 
which  distorts  their  figures,  and  compresses  their  livers, 
stomachs,  and  other  abdominal  organs,  is  a  contrivance 
admirably  calculated  to  produce  disease  and  so  to  cripple 
and  confine  a  woman's  energies.  So  long  as  these  mal- 
practices are  continued,  woman  must  of  necessity  remain 


326      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  weaker  sex.  I  should  be  sorry  to  think  that  the 
ordinary  sensible  woman  of  the  present  day  has  any 
hankerings  after  such  an  instrument  of  torture,  and  does 
not  rather  select  an  article  with  most  of  the  good  points 
and  as  few  as  possible  of  the  bad  points  of  the  corset. 
I  cannot  subscribe  to  the  doctrine  that  woman  should 
suspend  her  clothing — at  any  rate,  the  clothing  she  is 
compelled  to  wear  at  present  by  custom  and  law — from 
her  shoulders,  and  I  cannot  help  comparing  the  physique 
of  the  young  man  and  woman  of  the  present  day  with 
special  reference  to  their  erect  gait,  greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  latter. 

It  is  not  only  that  housework  is  more  apt  to  create 
better  figures  than  desk  work,  because  female  clerks  are 
quite  as  erect  as  their  housewife  sisters ;  it  is  the  fact 
that  the  corset  not  only  acts  as  a  brace  to  the  spinal 
column,  but  takes  the  weight  away  from  the  sloping 
shoulder  where  it  has  a  tem'sncy  to  contract  the  chest 
and  cause  a  decided  stoop,  and  transfers  it  to  the  crest 
of  the  "  ilium,"  which  is  by  all  anatomists  held  to  be  the 
most  powerful  bone  of  the  body. 

Where,  however,  the  deforming  corset  I  have  con- 
demned is  worn,  the  weight  of  the  skirt  is  removed  a 
little  higher  up  to  the  wasp-like  waist,  and  along  with 
the  corset  helps  to  compress  the  abdomen  and  bear  down 
upon  the  delicate  organs  contained  therein.  Such  a  corset 
makes  the  skirt  heavier,  because  it  removes  the  suspend- 
ing line  from  the  crests  of  the  ilium  to  a  higher  point, 
and  hence  a  longer  skirt  is  necessary,  and  indeed  this  is 
a  point  specially  aimed  at. 

Where  a  sensible  corset,  with  or  without  some 
strengthening  material  like  whalebone  or  other  elastic 
support,  is  worn,  I  cannot  but  think  that  it  will  be 
found  of  great  value  as  a  protecting  medium,  and  may 


PROTECTION  327 

be  used  as  a  means  of  more  equally  distributing  the 
weight  of  the  clothing  than  if  the  latter  were  entirely 
suspended  from  the  shoulders.  With  such  an  arrange- 
ment garters  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  just  how  many 
generations  of  women  have  suffered  from  varicose  veins 
due  to  this  cause  it  would  be  hard  to  say.  Besides, 
where  a  woman  wears  an  all-wool  combination  under- 
garment, a  sensible  corset,  a  warm  pair  of  tweed  or 
woollen  knickers,  and  a  warm  blouse,  there  is  only  the 
necessity  for  suspending  the  skirt  from  the  crests  of  the 
ilium,  and  it  need  neither  be  long  nor  heavy. 

The  clothing  of  the  ordinary  man,  despite  great  and  The  Folly 
serious  defects  which  will  be  pointed  out  when  discussing  Hats.'^^ 
in  detail  the  various  articles  of  attire,  is  much  to  be 
preferred  to  that  of  the  ordinary  woman.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  it  is  superior  in  point  of  weight,  warmth, 
looseness,  and  protecting  power,  and  is  infinitely  better 
balanced  and  therefore  more  suitable  from  the  standpoint 
of  health.  Yet  the  very  first  article  we  consider  in 
detail  is  inferior  from  every  point  of  view,  for  surely 
woman's  headgear,  except  in  point  of  price,  is  far  in 
advance  of  man's. 

The  sole  object  of  a  hat  ought  to  be  to  protect  the 
head  from  rain  and  from  the  too-powerful  rays  of  the 
sun.  Now,  it  is  true  that  most  men's  hats  fulfil  these 
functions,  but  at  the  same  time  they  possess  disadvan- 
tages which  quite  reverse  the  balance. 

Whether  we  look  at  the  bowler,  the  silk  hat,  or  the 
cap,  we  will  find  that,  whilst  shielding  the  head  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  they  enormously  increase  the  heat 
of  the  scalp — to  the  extent  frequently  of  30°  F.,  and  at 
the  same  time,  in  order  to  retain  their  position  on  the 
head,  they  are  pressed  down  so  firmly  that  their  rims 
seriously  compress  the  arteries  which  are  responsible  for 


328      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

conveying  nutriment  to  the  scalp.  The  bad  results 
accruing  from  these  serious  defects  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
tremendous  prevalence  of  baldness  in  men  as  compared 
with  women.  Doubtless  there  are  other  factors  involved, 
such  as  the  constant  cutting  of  men's  hair ;  but  it  is  in 
the  hat  that  the  grand  secret  of  baldness  is  to  be 
discovered. 

One  of  the  effects  of  the  close-fitting  hat  is  to  make 
the  epidermal  scales  accumulate  round  the  roots  of  the 
hair  and  encourage  the  growth  of  bacteria,  which  soon 
invade  the  hair  follicle  and  produce  around  it  a  slight 
form  of  inflammation.  This  presses  upon  the  root  of 
the  hair,  which,  being  thus  deprived  of  its  nourishment, 
gradually  atrophies,  producing,  as  it  does  so,  a  hair 
which  is  progressively  more  and  more  frail  and  devoid  of 
pigment.  Finally  it  dies,  and  the  dead  hair  is  expelled. 
TTie  epidermal  scales  set  up  an  irritation  which  is 
responded  to  by  the  sebaceous  glands,  and  these  manu- 
facture an  increasing  quantity  of  oily  fluid  which  is 
extended  over  the  scalp,  the  final  result  being  dandruff 
or  scurf,  the  most  deadly  enemy  to  the  health  of  the 
scalp  which  we  know. 

The  use  of  hair  lotions  and  washes  only  leads  to  the 
removal  of  all  the  loose  hairs  by  friction,  and,  as  the 
cause  of  the  disease  is  still  in  existence  in  the  shape  of 
an  unhygienic  hat,  there  is  no  improvement  in  the  con- 
dition, but  rather  the  reverse.  Hence  the  constant 
complaint  of  people  that  the  many  proprietary  articles 
advertised  for  the  cure  of  baldness  are  useless  and  only 
hasten  the  completion  of  the  calamity. 

What  is  wanted,  is  to  do  away  with  the  tight  hatband 
and  the  dark  noisome  covering  comparable  to  the 
"  cloches "  in  a  French  garden,  and  vigorously  massage 
the  scalp  and  move  it  to  and  fro  on  the  cranium  with 


PROTECTION  329 

the  object  of  increasmg  the  blood  supply  of  the  hair 
follicles  and  cleansing  the  pores  from  the  impurities 
which  so  effectively  block  their  passages.  In  most  cases, 
however,  it  is  necessary,  in  addition,  to  cleanse  the  head 
thoroughly  at  least  once  a  week,  and  this  is  done  by 
shampooing  with  the  following  shampoo  liquid  : — 

Oil  of  lavender,  1 0   drops ;  rectified  spirit,  ^    oz. ; 

soft    soap,   B.P.,    2    oz. ;    distilled    water,    to    6 

oz. 
After  careful  drying  apply  the  following  lotion  through  a 
sprinkler,  shampooing  with  the  fingers  for  five  minutes  : — 
Beta-naphthol,  5  drms. ;  proof  spirit,  15  oz. ;  tincture 

of  quillaia,  15  oz. ;  glycerine,  10   drms.;  essence 

of  bouquet,  6  drms.     Mix  and  filter. 
Keep  the  head  "covered  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  dress 
the  hair  with  a  little  carbolated  brilliantine. 

Castor  oil,  2   drms. ;  almond  oil,  4  oz. ;  glycerine, 

6  drms. ;  carbolic  acid,  2  drms. ;  absolute  alcohol, 

to  6  oz. 
After  a  few  weeks  of  this  treatment  a  stimulating  hair 
lotion  will  be  required,  and  the  following  are  two  good 
examples : — 

Tincture   of   cantharides,    1    oz. ;   ammonia,    1    oz. ; 

oil  of  sweet  almonds,  2  oz. ;  spirits  of  rosemary, 

2  oz. 
Or, 

Nitrate   of  pilocarpine,  1   gr. ;   glycerine  of   borax, 

3  drms. ;  rose  water,  to  8  oz. 

These,  however,  will  be  of  no  avail  if  the  hair  follicles 
be  destroyed,  nor  will  they  serve  their  purpose  unless  the 
headgear  be  altered  so  that  air  can  freely  reach  the  scalp, 
and  the  arteries  which  supply  its  nutriment  be  reheved 
from  compression. 

Another  very  troublesome  ailment  which  I  have  seen 


330      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

A  arise  from  this  latter  cause  is  "  supraorbital "  neuralgia. 

Neuralgia.  ^^  ^^^s  ofteii  been  said  that  neuralgia  is  the  cry  of  a 
nerve  for  healthy  blood,  and  if  this  be  so  surely  such  an 
obvious  cause  as  constriction  of  the  arteries  by  a  tight 
hatband  should  not  be  so  frequently  overlooked. 

When  so  much  has  been  said  on  the  defects  of  the 
men's  hats  in  ordinary  use,  one  should  be  prepared  with 
a  suggestion  for  a  satisfactory  substitute,  which  is  not 
such  an  easy  matter.  On  the  whole,  however,  I  incline 
to  the  view  that  a  Panama  or  other  comfortable  straw 
hat  in  the  summer  and  a  soft  Jim-Crow  hat  for  the 
winter-time  is  the  most  hygienic  form  of  headgear. 
There  always  remains  the  possibility  of  dispensing  with 
the  use  of  the  hat  altogether,  and  many  have  been  bold 
enough  to  brave  custom  to  this  extent,  much  to  the 
advantage  of  their  scalps  and  hair.  But  there  are  limits 
to  this  fashion,  because,  even  although  the  original 
purpose  of  a  head  covering,  namely,  defence  from 
violence,  has  been  lost  sight  of,  the  subsidiary  function 
of  adornment  which  it  serves  cannot  rashly  be  over- 
looked, not  to  speak  of  the  rainy  or  sunny  days  from 
which  our  sensitive  crania  require  some  measure  of 
protection. 

The  ordinary  jacket,  lounge  or  otherwise,  is  not  all 
that  could  be  desired,  although  it  meets  the  exigencies 
of  everyday  life  fairly  well,  especially  when  supplemented 
in  the  winter  by  a  silk  lining.  It  fails,  however,  to 
protect  the  loins  like  a  frockcoat,  and  it  also  leaves  the 
lower  portion  of  the  abdomen  unnecessarily  exposed. 
This  difficulty  may  be  easily  overcome  if  a  knitted 
woollen  binder,  or  what  is  usually  known  as  a  lumbago 
belt,  be  worn,  or  (what  is  better)  if  the  upper  eight  inches 
or  so  of  the  trousers  be  lined  with  Jaeger  or  other 
flannel. 


PROTECTION  331 

Waistcoats  are  certainly  the  weakest  item  of  a  man's  The 
body  covering.     The   sides  and   back   are  usually  lined  ^f  ^?^"(,?'^ 
with  Italian  cloth  just  where  protection  is  most  necessary,  coats. 
and  hence  the  lungs  are  left  improtected  at  their  most 
vulnerable  parts.     All   this   can   be  obviated   by  lining 
them  throughout  with  Jaeger,  with  a  double  layer  at  the 
back  and  sides. 

In  the  winter  a  kind  of  knitted,  woollen  waistcoat 
called  a  Cardigan  is  most  valuable,  although  a  thick, 
woollen  jersey  for  exercise  will  be  found  more  comfort- 
able and  uniformly  protecting. 

For  clothing  the  lower  limbs  a  man  is  restricted  to 
the  use  of  trousers  or  knickerbockers  with  stockings. 
The  former  are  undoubtedly  warmer,  although  they  are 
not  so  cleanly.  Turning  them  up  at  the  feet  may 
prevent  the  lower  edges  from  fraying,  but  only  transfers 
the  dirt  to  the  folded-in  portion. 

Gaiters  or  spats  may  be  advantageously  worn  in  the 
dirty  days  of  winter,  both  as  an  additional  protection  to 
the  ankles  and  a  means  of  keeping  the  trousers  cleaner. 
One  should  never  fail  to  brush  carefully  the  nether 
garments,  gaiters  and  footgear,  at  least  once  daily.  The 
days  are  gone  by  when  trousers  used  to  be  lined  with 
some  cotton  or  other  washable  material,  which  not  only 
had  the  advantage  of  making  them  warmer  and  more 
durable,  but  could  be  removed  and  cleansed  from  its 
impurity. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  pockets,  as  a  rule,  are 
ingrained  with  filth,  and  it  is  well  to  have  them 
renewed  periodically. 

Braces  should  always  be  worn  in  preference  to  belts 
even  during  exercise,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  no 
undue  pressure  is  exercised  by  them  on  delicate  parts. 
Otherwise   inexplicable   pains   are  frequently  traced  to 


332      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

pressure  of  the  braces,  disappearing  when  the  position  of 
the  trouser-buttons  is  altered. 
Shirts  and  The  white  linen  shirt,  with  its  stiff  starched  front,  is 
oiiars.  j^Q^  almost  a  thing  of  the  past  unless  for  occasional 
or  evening  wear.  Its  only  redeeming  feature  from  the 
hygienic  point  of  view  was  that  it  so  soon  displayed  the 
dirt  and  thus  necessitated  an  almost  daily  change,  so 
that  those  men  who  could  afford  to  do  so  had  the 
inestimable  advantage  of  each  morning  interposing  a 
perfectly  clean  garment  between  their  dust-ingrained 
outer  clothing  and  their  sweat-saturated  under-clothing. 

But  it  was  ever  a  treacherous  garment,  though  withal 
it  imparted  a  feeling  of  comfort,  and  is  wisely  replaced 
by  the  woollen  shirt  of  varying  thickness  according  to 
the  season  of  the  year.  On  occasions  when  the  wearing 
of  a  white  shirt  becomes  necessary,  such  as  the  donning 
of  evening  dress,  heavier  under-clothing  must  be  worn 
than  usual,  to  avoid  the  risk  of  catching  cold,  unless, 
indeed,  one  happens  to  belong  to  the  leisured  class  who 
can  afford  the  time  and  expense  involved  in  dressing  for 
dinner  each  evening,  a  most  delightful  practice,  to  be 
commended  as  much  for  its  effect  on  the  mind  as  on  the 
body. 

The  collar,  with  its  ever-changing  shapes,  is  a  puzzle 
to  all  hygienists,  as  it  is  universally  worn  without  any 
rational  purpose.  It  restricts  the  movements  of  the 
neck,  constricts  the  blood  vessels  passing  to  the  brain, 
irritates  the  lymphatics  in  the  delicate  cervical  region, 
and  when  frayed  at  the  edges  rapidly  produces  little 
abrasions  in  which  germs  set  up  boils  and  carbuncles. 
When  limp  with  perspiration  it  extracts  too  much  heat 
from  the  underlying  skin,  and  rheumatic  pains,  usually 
described  as  "  crick  "  in  the  neck,  speedily  arise.  It  is 
most  inefficient  as  a  protecting  agency,  and  should  never 


PROTECTION  333 

be  worn  where  courage  will  avail  to  don  a  soft  silk  or 
woollen  substitute.  It  is,  however,  unwise  to  encourage 
the  wearing  of  too  much  covering  on  the  neck,  on 
account  of  the  risk  of  catching  cold  when  any  part  of  it 
is  left  off,  and  this  remark  applies  with  equal  force  to 
such  articles  of  clothing  as  silk  or  woollen  scarves  or 
cravats,  which  are  rarely  necessary. 

Grloves  are  of  value  not  only  to  protect  the  hands 
from  cold  but  also  from  dirt,  and  may  be  obtained  in 
any  material  from  silk  to  fur.  A  recent  innovation  is  a 
double-layered  cotton  glove  made  in  imitation  reindeer, 
which  is  cool  in  summer,  warm  in  winter,  washable  and 
moderate  in  price. 

Overcoats  should  never  be  omitted  from  the  wardrobe,  The  Indis- 
although  they  are  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  debility  by  P^^^^^^^ 
some  who  prefer  to  brave  the  rigours  of  winter  without 
one,  and  frequently  catch  pneumonia  or  other  respiratory 
disorders  for  their  folly.  It  is,  however,  important  to 
modify  the  thickness  of  this  garment  according  to  its 
purpose,  and  so,  whilst  a  thick,  fur-lined  coat  may  be 
worn  for  driving  or  motoring,  something  of  moderate 
thickness  only  may  be  required  for  walking  purposes. 
Weight  is  not  always  synonymous  with  warmth,  and 
nothing  is  more  fatiguing  than  walking  about  in  a  heavy 
overcoat. 

It  is  a  much  wiser  plan  to  order  two  overcoats  at 
the  same  time,  a  Chesterfield  of  moderate  thickness  for 
walking  and  a  waterproofed  tweed  overcoat,  made  to  fit 
loosely  over  the  former,  which  can  be  used  as  a  mackin- 
tosh, and  also,  when  occasion  demands,  for  wearing  along 
with  the  other  overcoat  for  extra  warmth  in  driving  or 
travelling.  This  is  simply  carrying  out  the  principle  of 
an  extra  layer  of  air  without  any  unnecessary  weight  to 
carry.     Any   one   possessing  these  two   garments   need 


334      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

hardly  invest  in  a  rubber  mackintosh,  which  is,  however, 
valuable  as  a  protection  against  both  cold  and  wet  in 
those  whose  occupation  demands  considerable  exposure 
but  little  exercise,  such  as  drivers  and  sailors.  For 
those  who  are  taking  exercise,  such  articles  of  attire  are 
worse  than  useless,  because  while  thej  may  save  the 
outer  clothing  from  becoming  wet,  the  moisture  is  only 
transferred  to  the  under-clothing ;  the  excessive  perspira- 
tion is  unable  to  disappear  by  evaporation  in  the  usual 
way,  because  of  the  impervious  texture  of  the  mackin- 
tosh, and  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  maintained  in  a  most 
unwholesome  condition. 
ToHaraen  Socks  and  stockings  should  always  be  made  of  pure 
the  Feet.  ^qqJ  ^f  convenient  thickness,  as  these  will  be  found 
much  more  comfortable  for  walking  and  warmth,  both 
in  summer  and  winter,  than  silk,  cotton,  or  any  other 
woollen  substitute.  They  should  be  changed  often,  the 
frequency  depending  on  the  amount  of  perspiration 
emanating  from  the  wearer's  feet.  Where  this  is  ex- 
cessive, and  especially  when  it  is  accompanied  by  an 
unpleasant  odour  (a  condition  known  as  "  bromidrosis  "), 
means  should  be  adopted  for  overcoming  it.  One  of  the 
simplest  methods  is  to  bathe  the  feet  each  evening  in  a 
warm  saturated  solution  of  boric  acid,  at  the  same  time 
soaking  the  socks  in  the  solution,  and  after  wringing  out 
the  excess  of  fluid  leaving  them  to  dry  over  night.  In 
the  morning  a  little  extra  boric  acid  may  be  powdered 
into  them  before  putting  them  on. 

This,  however,  is  only  suitable  for  slight  cases,  and  is 
of  no  avail  in  those  where  not  only  the  sufferer,  but  all 
who  come  into  contact  with  him,  have  their  sense  of 
smell  offended.  One  of  the  important  items  of  treat- 
ment for  the  latter  is  the  use  of  alcohol,  which  is 
certainly  of  more  value  to  the  feet  than  to  the  head,  and 


PROTECTION  335 

has  the  property  of  hardening  the  one  if  it  softens  the 
other.  The  bathing  process  at  night  is  conducted  with 
a  solution  of  salt  and  water,  or  alum  and  water,  and, 
after  careful  drying,  the  feet  are  sponged  with  methy- 
lated spirit.  The  stockings  may  be  soaked  in  the  boric 
acid  solution  as  before  and  allowed  to  dry,  but  in  the 
morning  the  following  powder  is  liberally  applied  both 
to  feet  and  socks  : — 

Oleate  of  zinc  powder,  1  oz. ;  boric  acid,  1  oz. ; 
powdered  talc,  2  oz. ;  powdered  wheaten  starch, 
4  oz. 

A  modification  of  this  method  is  also  suggested  as  a 
means  of  preparing  the  feet  for  a  long  walk.  For  four 
weeks  before  the  walk  bathe  the  feet  every  morning  and 
evening  in  tepid  water,  using  ichthyol,  superfatted  or 
carbolic  soap.  After  drying,  bathe  them  with  a  lotion, 
consisting  of  equal  parts  of  spirits  of  wine  and  tincture 
of  hamamelis,  which  is  an  excellent  hardening  agency 
for  the  skin.      Then  use  the  above  powder. 

All  sorts  of  remedies  have  been  suggested  for  cold 
feet,  but  in  my  own  experience  none  has  exceeded  in 
value  the  following  method.  Carrying  out  the  principle 
of  layers  of  clothing,  a  pair  of  thinner  socks  should  be 
worn  under  a  larger  pair  of  slightly  thicker  socks,  the 
boots  or  shoes  of  course  being  made  a  little  larger  than 
usual.  If,  then,  the  feet,  socks,  and  insides  of  the  shoes 
— for  shoes  are  not  only  better  but  more  easily  warmed 
than  boots — are  thoroughly  warmed  before  starting  out 
in  the  morning,  and  if,  in  addition,  a  good  pair  of  spats 
or  gaiters  be  worn,  little  fear  need  be  entertained  of  cold 
feet  during  the  rest  of  the  day.  These  measures  I  have 
found  more  successful  than  the  use  of  loofah,  asbestos, 
or  other  soles,  although  such  could  easily  be  used  in 
addition. 


336      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Boots  and  The  important  problem  of  foot-gear  is  one  that  must 
Shoes.  ^Q  Yeft  largely  to  the  individual.  It  is  quite  certain 
that  for  perfect  insurance  of  comfort  one  must  have 
boots  or  shoes  made  to  order,  but  if  the  manufacturer 
insists  on  measuring  by  the  antediluvian  method  of 
fitting  a  gauge  with  a  sliding  mark  on  the  heel  and  big 
toe,  the  results  are  likely  to  be  disappointing,  even  if  the 
width  of  the  feet  be  likewise  taken  at  three  different 
places.  The  advice  to  have  lasts  made  is  much  sounder, 
but  the  great  difficulty  is  to  find  a  man  who  knows  how  to 
measure  for  them,  or,  when  this  is  done,  how  to  make  them. 
In  all  ordinary  types  of  foot-gear  the  hygienic  interest 
has  been  sacrificed  to  the  cesthetic.  Many  types  of 
boots  and  shoes  have  as  little  likeness  to  the  shape  of 
the  foot  as  an  ancient  coracle  to  a  modern  yacht.  They 
are  broad  where  they  ought  to  be  narrow,  and  narrow 
where  they  ought  to  be  broad ;  high  where  they  should 
be  low,  and  low  where  they  should  be  high.  So-called 
"  reforms,"  moreover,  have  generally  consisted  of  replacing 
one  defect  by  another. 

The  two  essential  qualities  of  foot-gear  are  good 
fitting  and  resistance  to  damp.  The  American  invasion 
of  the  English  shoe  market  drew  the  attention  of  the 
shoemaker  very  forcibly  to  the  first  of  these  points,  for 
whatever  success  the  American  shoe  attained  in  England 
was  solely  due  to  the  greater  attention  which  the  makers 
gave  to  the  anatomy  of  the  human  foot.  It  was  in  their 
failure  to  meet  the  second  requirement  that  the  American 
shoe  was  disappointing,  the  outer  soles  being  made  of 
leather  which  could  not  compare  with  that  tanned  in 
England.  Luckily  for  his  reputation  and  fortune,  the 
British  manufacturer  woke  up  to  his  business  and  is 
to-day  supplying  an  article  immeasurably  superior  in 
construction  to  that  of  ten  or  twenty  years  ago. 


PROTECTION  337 

The  points  to  observe  in  being  fitted  with  boots  or 
shoes  are  these.  The  shoes  miisfc  be  perfectly  easy  and 
comfortable  when  first  tried  on,  without,  however,  being 
loose  in  any  part  ;  they  should  be  from  half  to  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  longer  inside  than  the  foot,  and 
particular  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  fit 
closely,  without  any  puckering  of  the  leather  under  the 
arch  of  the  foot  on  the  inside.  The  inner  edg;es  of  the 
soles  should  be  almost  straight,  and  the  outer  edges 
should  curve  inwards  towards  the  toes,  the  welt  on  the 
outer  edge  being  broader  than  on  the  inside.  The  toes 
should  be  broad  but  not  square,  the  heels  broad  and  low, 
and  the  soles  in  thickness  not  less  than  five-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  for  men  and  quarter  of  an  inch  for  Women. 

Eeady-made  boots  and  shoes  of  excellent  quality  are 
obtainable  embodying  all  these  points,  though  the 
purchaser  may  not  always  succeed  in  lighting  on  them. 
If  one  is  unable  to  be  fitted  the  only  remedy  is  to  have 
a  pair  of  lasts  made,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  feet  measured  by  the  man  who  is  going  to  make  the 
lasts. 

The  anatomy  of  the  foot  is  such  that,  in  walking,  the  High 
heel  first  comes  into  contact  with  the  ground,  and  even  p^^f  ^^ 
in  standing  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  weight  of  Toes, 
the  body    is  borne    by    the    heel,  the  rest  of  the  foot, 
including  the  arch,  being  by  way  of  a  support,  especially 
during  fatigue. 

Where,  however,  the  heel  of  the  shoe  is  excessively 
high,  the  tendency  is  to  throw  too  much  weight  upon  the 
ball  of  the  foot,  and,  as  there  is  usually  no  room  for 
lengthening  or  spreading,  the  end  of  the  big  toe  comes 
into  contact  with  the  toe-cap ;  the  great  toe  joint  is 
little  used,  becomes  inflamed,  thickened,  and  fixed,  and 
too  much  strain  is  put  upon  the  ligaments  in  the  arch  of 


338      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  foot.  The  result  is  that  these  become  stretched  and 
the  condition  known  as  flat  foot  supervenes.  Where  the 
occupation  entails  much  standing,  causing  much  muscular 
fatigue,  the  deformity  is  more  easily  produced,  because 
vigorous  muscular  action  has  much  to  do  with  preserving 
a  healthy  foot.  In  these  days  of  nervous  exhaustion  it 
would  be  well  if  all  shoes  were  specially  strengthened  at 
the  instep  or  arch,  so  as  to  obviate  this  tendency  to 
relaxation  of  the  ligaments,  and  where  the  deformity  is 
already  established  a  supporting  arch  should  be  worn 
inside  the  boot.  In  addition  to  this,  improvement  in 
the  general  health  and  the  institution  of  special  exercises 
for  toe  and  foot  drill  will  help  to  mend  matters. 

A  much  more  painful  if  not  more  serious  deformity  is 
produced  when  the  toes  of  the  shoes  are  pointed,  because 
then  the  great  toe  is  pushed  outwards  and  its  joint  much 
enlarged  and  thickened,  producing  the  affliction  known 
as  bunion.  The  only  treatment  necessary  for  this  in  the 
early  stages  is  to  remove  the  cause  by  providing  properly 
fitting  boots  and  drawing  the  great  toe  inwards  to  its 
natural  position  and  fixing  it  there  by  strapping.  When 
the  condition  is  more  severe  a  toe-post  must  be  fixed  in 
the  boot  and  the  part  painted  with  liniment  of  iodine  to 
reduce  the  swelling,  or  where  much  pain  exists  a  lead 
and  opium  lotion  may  be  used  with  advantage. 

Hammer  or  "  trigger  "  toe  is  the  result  of  a  still  more 
serious  pointing,  and  at  the  same  time  shortening  of  the 
boot,  so  that  in  its  desperate  efforts  to  make  room  for  all 
the  toes  the  big  toe  is  packed  under  the  second,  which 
becomes  doubled  upon  itself. 

In-growing  toe-nail  is  still  a  third  painful  condition  to 
be  attributed  entirely  to  the  fashionable  tapering  toe  so 
much  in  vogue.  ISTo  treatment  will  avail  unless  the 
undue  pressure  be  removed,  and  then  in  mild  cases  the 


PROTECTION  339 

following  method  should  set  matters  right.  First  trim 
the  free  edge  of  the  nail  straight  across  without  romiding 
off  the  angles,  then  scrape  the  back  of  the  nail  with  the 
edge  of  a  knife  or  piece  of  glass,  so  as  to  reduce  its  thick- 
ness and  produce  a  tendenc}'  to  curl  upwards  or  back- 
wards away  from  the  edges,  then  remove  any  cuticle 
accumulated  under  the  in-growing  edges  of  the  nail.  A 
little  piece  of  lint  may  be  gently  inserted  between  the 
tender  overhanging  skin  and  in-growing  edge  and  left  for 
a  few  days,  when  it  may  be  removed  and  the  space 
filled  with  boric  acid  powder.  In  severe  cases  of  this, 
as  of  the  other  two  troubles,  operation  may  be  necessary 
to  give  relief. 

Minor  discomforts  due  to  ill-fitting  foot-gear  are  corns,  The  Cure 
callosities,  and  chilblains,  which  may  all  be  prevented  by  °^  Corns, 
comfortable  boots  or  shoes.  A  corn  is  simply  an  over- 
growth of  the  epidermis  brought  about  by  pressure,  and 
is  really  an  effort  of  nature  to  prevent  more  serious 
damage.  The  hardening  takes  the  form  of  a  corn,  and, 
pushing  inwards  to  the  soft  parts,  impinges  upon  nerves, 
with  excessively  painful  results.  There  are  hard  and 
soft  corns,  the  latter  being  recent  and  as  a  rule  between 
the  toes.  They  are  most  easily  removed  by  any  softening 
application,  such  as  glycerine,  soft  soap,  or  the  salicylic 
acid  ointment  about  to  be  mentioned.  Hard  corns  can 
never  be  got  rid  of  without  first  paring  them  with  either 
a  knife  or  a  razor  or  using  one  of  the  rubbers  or  saws 
now  on  the  market.  Thereafter  some  form  of  salicylic 
acid  must  be  applied,  and  herein  is  room  for  in- 
genuity. 

The  simplest  method  is  as  follows  : — 

Salicylic  acid,  1   drm. ;  extract  of  cannabis  indica, 
1  drm. ;  flexile  collodion  (|  strength),  1  oz. 
Paint  this  on  night  and  morning  and  occasionally  pare  or 


340      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

scrape  the  corn,  at  the  same  time  renewing  the  coating, 
and  soon  the  hardened  epidermis  will  come  off. 

For  temporary  protection  of  a  corn  chemists  sell  little 
rings  of  felt ,  which  are  pasted  on  the  affected  part  with 
the  corn  in  the  centre.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  boots 
which  are  too  large  are  quite  as  apt  to  cause  corns  as 
those  which  are  too  small. 

Callosities  are  almost  always  found  on  the  sole  of  the 
foot,  and  are  produced  by  the  skin  being  thrown  into 
ridges  by  a  too  narrow  sole.  They  are  to  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner  as  corns. 

Chilblains  are  not  necessarily  due  to  ill-fitting  boots, 
but  these  are  nearly  always  a  factor  in  their  production, 
although  a  weak  circulation  and  injudicious  exposure  of 
the  feet  to  cold,  followed  by  the  heat  of  the  fire,  are 
usually  the  exciting  causes.  The  itching  is  easily  got  rid 
of  by  rubbing  with  ichthyol  ointment,  and  the  ailment 
may  be  cured  by  the  administration  of  ten  grains  of 
chloride  of  calcium  well  diluted  three  times  a  day  for 
two  days. 

Shoes  should  always  be  preferred  to  boots,  not  only 
because  the  ventilation  of  the  foot  is  better,  but  because 
they  in  no  way  hamper  the  action  of  the  ankle,  which  is 
thereby  strengthened.  For  extra  warmth  gaiters  may  be 
worn,  and  shoes  with  gaiters  are  always  warmer  than 
boots  with  or  without  gaiters. 

Patent  leather  shoes  should  not  be  worn  regularly  or 
continuously,  on  account  of  the  impediment  they  offer  to 
proper  evaporation  of  the  perspiration. 

Eubber  overshoes  or  snow-boots  as  a  teniporary  exped- 
ient in  wet  and  snowy  weather  are  extremely  valuable. 
For  those  who  have  much  walking  to  do  in  wet  weather, 
hob-nails  or  tackets  are  a  great  protection  to  the  soles  of 
the  shoes,  and  prevent  the  evils  of  "  wet  "  feet.     Wet 


PROTECTION  341 

clothing  of  all  kinds  is  really  worse  than  none,  for  the 
moisture  extends  through  the  texture  of  the  material  and 
removes  heat  from  the  body  by  evaporation.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  if  the  boots  and  stockings  are  thoroughly 
wet  and  allowed  to  dry  on  the  feet  they  will  remove  as 
much  heat  as  will  raise  half  a  pound  of  water  at  32°  F.  to 
boiling-point. 

The  final  point  in  connection  with  this  subject  is  to 
mention  the  great  relief  afforded  by  the  use  of  rubber 
tips  or  rubber  heels  when  walking  on  hard  pavements 
for  a  length  of  time. 

Little  need  be  said  about  night  attire,  which  should 
always  be  made  of  some  flannel  material.  In  the  winter- 
time pyjamas  of  some  well-recognised  knitted  type,  with 
bed  socks,  will  be  found  much  warmer  than  shirts. 
When  sleeping  in  the  open  air  or  with  the  bedroom 
window  fully  raised,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  a 
flannel  or  silk  nightcap  for  protection  against  draughts. 

Bed-clothing  should  never  be  unnecessarily  heavy,  and 
a  light  eider-down  quilt  will  be  found  equal  to  many 
heavy  blankets. 

Working  men  of  all  kinds  engaged  in  dirty  occupations 
should  either  wear  overalls  or  be  provided  with  a  second  suit 
of  clothing  which  they  can  don  on  their  way  to  and  from 
work.  The  time  will  necessarily  come  when  the  munici- 
pality, which  provides  electric  trams  for  all  and  sundry, 
will  be  compelled  to  insist  on  the  provision  of  washing 
and  dressing-rooms  in  dirty  factories,  so  that  the  work- 
men may  be  able  to  travel  to  their  homes  without  the 
possibility  of  soiling  the  clothes  of  their  fellow-travellers. 
It  is  perhaps  premature  to  suggest  that,  just  as  under- 
clothing should  be  washed  at  weekly  or  fortnightly 
intervals,  so  the  outer  clothing  should  be  subjected  to 
periodical  cleansing. 


342      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  answer  the  constantly 
occurring  question,  "  How  to  avoid  catching  cold."  It 
is  particularly  unfortunate  that  the  word  "  cold,"  which, 
after  all,  only  designates  a  possible  cause,  should  be  used 
as  the  name  of  a  disease.  There  is  very  little  doubt 
that  exposure  to  cold  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes 
of  acute  rhinitis  or  nasal  catarrh,  especially  the  exposure 
of  those  parts  of  the  body  ordinarily  protected  by  cloth- 
ing. But  as  only  a  small  proportion  of  those  who  are 
exposed  to  cold  succumb  to  this  troublesome  affection, 
there  must  be  some  special  reason  for  its  unequal 
distribution. 

The  truth  is,  that  nasal  catarrh  is  due  to  the  invasion 
of  a  microbe  which,  being  transferred  from  one  person 
to  another,  will  only  grow  on  a  specially  prepared  soil. 
In  other  words,  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  of  the  man 
who  is  said  to  catch  a  cold  must  be  supplied  by  a  special 
quality  of  blood  which  will  provide  a  grovv^ing  medium 
or  soil  for  the  growth  of  the  germ.  There  is  not 
necessarily  any  gross  alterations  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  nose,  although  this  is  extremely  common,  but 
there  is  usually  habitual  engorgement  of  the  blood 
vessels,  making  the  soil  tolerant  and  receptive  of  the 
germ. 

Such  a  condition  is  more  or  less  constant  in  the  man 
who  does  not  live  in  the  open  air  as  much  as  possible 
and  who  fails  to  take  an  effective  morning  bath.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  this  should  be  cold  (as  has  been  ex- 
plained on  the  section  on  "  Bathing "),  but  it  ought  to 
be  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  really  cleanse  the 
body,  and  at  the  same  time  tone  up  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  skin  and  train  them  to  contract  readily  and  so  to 
resist  the  cold.  Then  overheated  rooms  and  too  much 
body  and  bed-clothing  must  be  avoided.     But  when  all 


PROTECTION  343 

this  has  been  attended  to  there  are  still  to  be  found 
those  who  are  subject  to  frequent  attacks  of  nasal 
catarrh. 

In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  that  repeated  colds  A  Conse- 
have  caused  a  thickening  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  gm^Mng. 
which  will  require  attention  from  a  doctor,  or  that  it  is 
being  subjected  to  daily  irritation  by  millions  of  particles 
of  heated  dust  in  the  shape  of  tobacco  smoke.  No  more 
potent  stimulant  for  the  growth  of  germs  can  be  imagined 
than  tobacco  smoke. 

Another  factor  which  is  far  too  frequently  overlooked 
is  diet,  and  after  a  careful  consideration  of  the  problem 
I  incline  to  the  view  that  quantity  rather  than  quality 
of  food  is  the  predominant  factor  in  the  predisposition 
to  nasal  catarrh,  —  always  excepting  indulgence  in 
alcoholic  liquors.  I  have  been  led  to  this  conclusion 
by  noting  that  vegetarians  as  well  as  meat  -  eaters, 
children  as  well  as  adults,  and  open-air  workers  perhaps 
most  of  all,  are  subject  to  colds  in  the  head.  Indeed,  it 
is  quite  a  common  occurrence  for  catarrh  to  attack  a 
man  after  a  long  spell  of  exercise  in  the  open-air,  e.g.  on 
his  return  from  a  holiday.  The  explanation  lies  in  the 
fact  that  his  appetite  was  sharpened  and  he  ate  a  good 
deal  more  than  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  waste 
and  repair  of  the  tissues,  and  so  long  as  the  residence 
in  the  bracing  air  continued  the  excess  was  burned  up 
and  no  harm  ensued.  This  good  appetite  was  carried 
back  to  town  and  gratified  as  formerly,  but  without  the 
same  ability  to  utilise  the  excess,  because  town  air  is 
deoxygenated  and  devitalised.  As  the  accumulation  of 
combustible  material  must  be  got  rid  of  somehow,  the 
"  fire  "  takes  place  in  the  respiratory  organs,  and  a  nasal 
catarrh  or  bronchitis  is  brought  about. 

A  similar  explanation  may  be  given  of  summer  colds 


344      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

as  we  are  apt  to  go  on  eating  the  same  amount  and 
kind  of  food  as  in  the  winter,  with  the  results  above 
mentioned.  Probably  some  foods  and  food  accessories 
are  more  damaging  than  others,  e.g.  excess  of  common 
salt  is  responsible  for  setting  up  nasal  catarrh  quite 
frequently. 

To  diminish,  therefore,  the  tendency  to  catch  cold  it 
will  be  necessary:  (1)  To  take  a  daily  cleansing  bath, 
which  need  not  be  cold  but  should  not  be  hot.  (2)  To 
wear  appropriate  clothing,  (3)  To  take  sufficient  open- 
air  exercise.  (4)  To  restrict  the  amount  of  food  to  the 
necessities  of  the  body.  (5)  To  diminish  the  quantity  of 
salt  and  irritating  food  accessories,  like  pepper,  mustard, 
etc.  (6)  To  cease  smoking.  (7)  To  use  the  method  of 
cleansing  the  nasal  passages  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Cleanliness."  The  great  value  of  this  last  practice 
consists  in  the  fact,  that  not  only  does  it  cleanse  the 
parts  from  dirt  and  microbes  and  render  the  mucous 
membrane  more  healthy,  but  it  washes  away  the  ex- 
cretions of  the  microbes,  which  are  called  sepsins  or 
toxins,  and  which,  when  they  are  absorbed  into  the  body, 
are  apt  to  set  up  diseases  at  points  remote  from  their 
origin. 

Pkactical  Summary. 

1.  To  retain  the  bodily  heat,  it  is  essential  that  a 
plentiful  supply  of  good  food  be  eaten. 

2.  To  retain  the  necessary  amount  of  bodily  heat  for 
comfort,  clothing  should  be  worn  of  seasonable  thickness, 
but  it  should  always  be  as  light  as  possible. 

3.  Wool  for  all  practical  purposes  is  the  best  material 
for  both  outer  and  under-clothing,  because  it  can  contain 
more  air  and  absorb  more  moisture,  without  feeling  wet 
and  cold,  than  any  other  material. 


PROTECTION  345 

4.  "Hardening"  is  a  great  blunder.  Sufficient 
clothing  to  keep  the  body  warm  should  always  be 
worn. 

5.  The  clothing  of  young  children  and  infants  needs 
revision.     Bare  legs  and  white  socks  are  an  anachronism. 

6.  The  weight  of  a  woman's  clothing  should  be  equally 
distributed  as  far  as  possible,  neither  altogether  depend- 
ing from  the  shoulders  and  so  interfering  with  the 
breathing,  nor  from  the  waist  and  so  compressing  the 
internal  organs. 

7.  Corsets,  if  sensibly  constructed,  are  not  without 
value. 

8.  Hard-brimmed  hats  should  never  be  worn,  as  they 
cause  baldness  and  are  apt  to  induce  neuralgia. 

9.  Waistcoats  are  dangerous,  unless  lined  with 
flannel. 

1 0.  Soft  silk  collars  are  to  be  preferred  to  stiff  linen. 

11.  Boots  and  shoes  should  be  made  on  a  last  if 
necessary,  and  constructed  on  sensible  principles. 

12.  Colds  cannot  always  be  cured,  but  can  almost 
always  be  prevented. 


CHAPTEE   X. 

MODERATION. 

LAW  IX. — "Regularity  and  moderation  stiould 
be  the  watcliwords  of  tlie  whole  life." 

TheCente-  nHHE  secret  of  longevity  lies  in  the  practice  of  these 
Secret.^  -*-  ^wo  virtues,  as  can  be  attested  by  every  cente- 
narian. An  examination  of  the  formulte  prescribed  by 
every  "  grand  old  man  "  will  reveal  a  curious  diversity  of 
detail,  but  the  underlying  principles  will  always  prove 
to  be  the  same.  Moltke,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  said  the 
secret  of  his  good  health  and  long  life  was,  "  Great 
moderation  in  all  things  and  regular  outdoor  exercise." 
Crispi,  in  an  interview,  declared  that  "  regularity  and 
abstinence  are  the  secrets  of  long  life." 

The  classical  case  of  Cornaro  will  occur  to  every  one. 
A  physical  wreck  at  the  age  of  forty,  he  adopted  a 
system  of  extreme  temperance  in  eating  and  moderation 
in  drinking,  partaking  of  only  twelve  ounces  of  mixed 
food  daily  and  fourteen  ounces  of  red  wine,  gradually 
diminishing  this  quantity  as  he  grew  older,  and  died 
peacefully  in  his  arm-chair  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  three. 

The  statement  that  a  man  is  either  a  fool  or  a 
physician  at  forty  doubtless  owes  its  origin  to  the  fact, 
that  unless  a  man  has  estimated  his  own  capacity  for 


MODERATION  347 

eating  and  drinking  and  for  work  by  the  age  of  two- 
score  he  has  been  gnilty  of  the  great  crime  of  failing  to 
exercise  his  faculties  of  observation  and  common  sense, 
and,  as  his  power  of  accommodation  to  adverse  circum- 
stances decreases  every  day  after  middle  age,  he  is  more 
than  likely  to  suffer  for  his  folly.  The  whole  object  of 
this  book  is  to  enable  a  man  to  acquire  that  information 
whereby  he  may  most  easily  "  know  himself,"  and  to  put 
into  practice  principles  of  action  whereby  he  may  convert 
himself  from  an  easily  transgressing  individual  into  an 
instinctive  votary  of  hygienic  wisdom.  He  will  attain 
to  this  state  in  proportion  as  he  recognises  that  the 
constant  repetition  of  an  act  leads  to  its  better  perform- 
ance, and  that  by  regularity  he  will  not  only  save  time 
but  also  tend  immensely  to  the  conservation  of  his 
energy. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  methods  whereby 
Nature  attains  her  ends  in  the  working  of  his  body  will 
show  him  that  all  its  unconscious  movements  are 
characterised  by  regularity  and  perfection  of  rhythm. 
The  beating  of  his  heart,  the  movements  of  the  muscles  of 
respiration,  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids,  the  peri- 
staltic action  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  are  all  outside 
of  his  own  control,  and  answer  their  purposes  in  the 
most  efficacious  manner,  chiefly  because  they  are  carried 
out  with  the  perfection  of  rhythm.  No  education  is 
required  to  enable  these  organs  to  fulfil  the  requirements 
of  the  human  economy ;  their  operation  is  perfectly 
spontaneous,  and  yet  they  are  complete  examples  of 
what  is  known  as  reflex  action,  which  is  at  the  root  of 
all  regularity  and  the  means  whereby  we  are  accustomed 
most  easily  to  acquire  good  habits. 

Habit  is  said  to  be  "a  second  nature,"  because  it 
enables  the  body  to  repeat   the  same  process  over  and 


348      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

over  again  without  the  necessity  of  calling  upon  volition 
to  step  in,  and  indeed  the  good  results  obtained  depend 
largely  upon  the  exclusion  of  volition  altogether.  The 
vast  majority  of  our  daily  activities  are  performed 
automatically  and  habitually,  thus  saving  an  immense 
amount  of  fatigue  to  our  bodies  and  ensuring  an  exact 
reproduction  of  any  process  we  may  require  from  them. 
We  can  hardly  remember  the  painful  steps  and  slow 
whereby  we  learned  to  walk,  but  most  of  us  can 
appreciate  the  stupendous  saving  of  labour  encom- 
passed by  habit  when  we  recall  our  first  efforts  to  play 
the  piano  or  manipulate  a  typewriter.  Every  action 
had  to  be  backed  up  by  a  separate  effort  of  the  will, 
which  is  completely  eliminated  when  we  are  transformed 
into  the  accomplished  pianist  or  typist. 
''Reflex"  The  mechanism  involved  in  this  process  is  described 
more  fully  in  the  chapter  (XI.)  on  "  Cheerfulness,"  but 
consists  briefly  in  the  acquisition  of  reflexes  by  regular 
repetition  of  the  movements  in  question.  A  reflex 
action  is  one  which  takes  place  without  consciousness, 
and  the  mechanism  required  for  its  performance  may  be 
thus  described — (1)  The  stimulation  of  a  sensory  or 
afferent  nerve ;  (2)  the  stimulation  by  this  of  an  inter- 
mediate nervous  or  reflex  centre ;  (3)  the  stimulation  by 
this  of  an  afferent  or  motor  nerve  producing  muscular  or 
other  action. 

A  simple  and  convincing  example  of  reflex  action  is 
that  of  swallowing,  because  every  one  knows  that  when 
the  stimulation  of  the  sensory  nerves  in  the  throat  and 
in  the  tongue  has  proceeded  to  a  certain  point  it  is 
impossible  to  prevent  the  action  of  the  muscles  of 
deglutition,  because  the  excitement  of  the  centre  in  the 
medulla  oblongata  has  compelled  their  contraction. 
Sneezing,  winking,  convulsions  of  teething,  grinding  of 


Actions. 


MODERATION  349 

teeth  from  worms,  micturition,  and  even  blushing  are  all 
examples  of  simple  reflex  action. 

What  is  called  the  "  superposition  of  reflexes "  is 
explained  by  the  diagram  in  Chapter  XI,,  and  enables 
one  to  comprehend  the  possibilities  of  the  more  complex 
reflexes  and  the  statement  that  we  are  merely  bundles  of 
habits.  As  this,  therefore,  is  what  we  always  tend  to 
become,  it  is  important  that  care  should  be  exercised 
by  ourselves  and  others  that  we  should  obtain  that 
particular  agglomeration  of  habits  which  shall  be  most 
useful  to  us  all  through  life.  A  process  of  education 
is  therefore  necessary  in  order  to  teach  us  how  to 
behave  in  all  circumstances,  and  habits  are  simply  the 
stuff  of  which  behaviour  consists.  "  Conduct  is  three- 
fourths  of  life,"  and  perfect  conduct  can  only  be  acquired 
by  careful  training  from  the  first. 

It  is  true  economy  to  take  pains  to  make  our  bodies 
our  servants  and  not  our  masters.  For  example,  take 
the  simple  habit  of  efficient  mastication,  which  is  so 
essential  to  a  perfect  digestion.  Most  children,  and 
sorrowful  to  relate  most  men,  are  in  the  habit  of  bolting 
their  food  unmasticated,  for,  despite  the  provision  by 
Nature  of  thirty-two  grinding  surfaces  for  its  trituration 
(indicating  the  vast  importance  of  that  process),  two 
or  three  champs  of  the  jaws  are  held  to  be  sufficient, 
and  a  draught  of  fluid  completes  the  perfunctory 
dispatch. 

Now,  nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  perfect  mastication,  if  sufficient  pains  be  taken,  but 
this  can  never  be  effected  without  deliberate  attention  to 
the  act  and  (just  at  first)  the  actual  enumeration  of  the 
bites  practised  on  the  food-  Needless  to  say,  there  is  no 
special  number  of  bites  necessary  for  adequate  mastica- 
tion, but  it  is  wise  to  insist  on  anything  from  seventy  to 


350      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

one  hundred,  and  in  most  eases  this  will  rarely  be  found 
too  many  for  the  proper  comminution  and  effectual 
insalivation  of  the  food.  If,  during  every  meal  for 
a  week,  this  process  be  religiously  indulged  in,  it  will  be 
found  that  thereafter  no  special  attention  is  necessary, 
because  the  moment  the  food  is  popped  into  the  mouth 
the  sensory  nerves  of  the  tongue  and  teeth  stimulate  the 
cerebral  centre,  which  impels  the  effective  action  of  the 
muscles  of  mastication,     (See  p.  10.) 

The  reward  for  such  careful  training  of  the  mechanism 
is  a  perfect  digestion  for  life,  and  even  in  most  cases, 
where  neglect  of  the  practice  has  led  to  serious  dyspepsia, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  retrace  the  steps  along  the  paths 
of  physiological  rectitude  to  ensure  the  same  good 
results. 

In  many  cases  of  constipation  a  cure  may  be  effected 
by  the  simple  procedure  of  attending  regularly  to  the 
evacuation  of  the  bowels  at  a  stated  time  every  day. 

Habit  and       It  is  a  wise  procedure  to  relegate  to  habit  as  far  as 

nessT"  possible  most  of  the  health  hints  inculcated  in  this 
volume.  There  is  nothing  so  easy  as  to  develop  the 
habit  of  deep  breathing,  not  only  at  stated  intervals  but 
all  through  the  day.  By  this  means  an  infinitely  greater 
supply  of  oxygen  is  available  for  blood  purification,  and 

,  many  of  the   evil   effects   of  city   life  are  checkmated. 

/  The   regular   practice    of   water    drinking    early   in   the 

morning,  last  thing  at  night,  and  between  meals,  with  all 
its  undoubted  benefits,  needs  only  to  be  inaugurated  and 
it  will  perpetuate  itself.  The  open  window  is  looked 
upon  as  a  modern  innovation,  though  it  was  practised 
and  recommended  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Once  started, 
there  is  little  fear  of  this  habit  being  dropped,  as  foul  air 
becomes  less  and  less  tolerable  to  the  senses,  and  the 
same   applies    to    that    buoyancy    of    temperament,   the 


MODERATION  351 

importance  of  which  to  sound  health  is  enlarged  upon  in 
a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  customs  of  modern  society  and  business  fortun- 
ately render  it  essential  that  meals  should  be  taken 
regularly,  and  the  condition  is  a  fortunate  one,  because 
our  digestive  organs  accommodate  themselves  to  such 
procedure  with  greater  ease.  This  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  fact  that  we  get  accustomed  to  eating  just  the  proper 
quantity  and  quality  of  nutriment  to  last  till  the  next 
meal  is  due.  Although  variety  of  food  is  counselled,  and 
with  much  show  of  authority,  it  is  also  a  fact  that  any 
great  change  of  diet  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  discomfort. 
There  is  much  justification  for  the  statement  that  this  is 
due  to  interfering  with  the  stomach's  habit  of  secretion, 
because  Pawlow  has  demonstrated  that  the  system  comes 
to  provide  the  precise  quantity  and  quality  of  digestive 
fluid  required  by  its  accustomed  task.  If,  therefore, 
we  eat  food  which  requires  a  greater  or  less  quantity 
than  is  customarily  secreted,  the  stomach's  arrangements 
are  disorganised. 

There  is  no  practice  essential  to  the  maintenance  of 
health  which  cannot  by  regularity  be  made  reflex,  and 
so  carried  on  automatically  and  accurately  with  valuable 
results  to  the  bodily  functions.  Hence,  cleaning  the 
teeth  night  and  morning  and  after  meals,  exercising 
seven  or  eight  minutes  each  morning,  bathing  just  after 
the  exercise,  are  all  quite  easily  sandwiched  into  the 
day's  proceedings  with  advantage  and  with  hardly  any 
appreciable  loss  of  time. 

The  regular  worker  knows  how  uncomfortable  he  feels 
when  for  any  reason  other  than  that  of  a  legitimate 
holiday  his  work  is  interrupted ;  and  when  this  cessation 
of  work  is  long  continued  it  ends  in  demoralisation. 
Just  as  little  can  he  tolerate  the  loss  of  his  sleep  or  his 
23 


352      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

rest,  and  for  most  of  iis  the  regular  alternation  of  work 
and  rest  is  the  best  guarantee  of  continued  health  and 
vigour.  That  man  lives  best  who  does  his  best  for  one 
day  at  a  time,  and  then  refreshes  himself  for  his  level 
best  the  next  day. 
Tyrannous  So  far  we  have  only  been  dealing  with  the  regular 
ppe  I  es.  pj.g^Qt;JQQ  Qf  helpful  health-giving  habits.  But  it  is  just 
as  easy  to  get  the  body  accustomed  to  other  habits  whose 
value  is  more  open  to  question.  The  ease  with  which 
we  develop  a  habit  is  readily  recognised  in  connection 
with  what  are  usually  spoken  of  as  bad  habits.  We 
speak  of  a  "  craving  "  for  certain  substances,  e.g.  alcohol, 
morphia,  cocaine,  tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  etc.  This  craving, 
in  the  case  of  drugs,  's  a  condition  in  which  the  nervous 
system  is  unequal  to  the  performance  of  its  ordinary 
duties  until  it  has  been  "  wound  up  "  for  a  time  by  its 
accustomed  drug.  The  smoker  finds  that  he  cannot 
shoot  or  fish  or  play  billiards  so  well  until  he  has  had 
his  smoke,  and  so  with  the  tea-drinker.  Tobacco  and 
tea,  when  taken  in  moderation,  are  undoubtedly  of  great 
service  to  many  people,  although  in  the  nature  of  drugs ; 
but  it  is  well  to  recognise  that  the  desire  for  them  is  a 
craving,  and,  if  gratified  to  an  inordinate  degree,  may 
easily  master  us.  All  judgment  condemns  the  man  who 
takes  alcohol,  morphia,  or  cocaine  to  excess,  and  yet  his 
fault  is  identical  with  that  of  indulgence  in  any  habit 
detrimental  to  the  body. 

Many  people  suffer  severely  from  chronic  recurring 
ill-health  who  are  regularly,  though  mayhap  unwittingly, 
satisfying  some  craving  of  their  appetites.  When  we 
feel  that  we  are  unable  to  resist  some  food  accessory,  or 
the  pipe,  or  the  fatal  glass,  it  is  high  time  to  expunge  it 
from  our  daily  life,  if  we  cannot  keep  it  within  limits. 
Tobacco,  tea,  and  coffee  are  regarded  as  venial  addictions. 


MODERATION  353 

Yet  the  first  may  be  the  cause  of  cold  feet  and  palpita- 
tion, and  the  other  two  of  the  most  violent  indigestion. 
A  distinguished  member  of  the  medical  profession  says : 
"  Tea  spoiled  the  twenty  best  years  of  my  life,  before  I 
found  it  out.  It  gave  me  awful  pains,  almost  anginiform, 
with  the  sense  of  palsy  and  weakness  of  the  limbs,  and  a 
grey  face,  but  there  was  no  obvious  change  in  my  pulse." 
I  can  endorse  every  word  of  this  statement  from  personal 
experience,  and  I  would  counsel  great  care  in  the  ad- 
mission into  the  daily  life  of  any  habit  which  may  prove 
a  subtle  enemy  of  sound  health. 

Eegularity  may  thus  become  our  greatest  foe  as  well  The  Self- 
as  our  best  friend.     Its  influence  is  so  great  that  it  will  p^Q^^™^"^*^ 
always  be  found  much  more  easy  to  acquire  a  new  habit  gramme. 
than  to  leave  off  an  old  one, — but  the  following  rules,  if 
carefully  carried  out,  will    enable    us  to  reinforce  that 
constant  attention  upon  which  success  is  so  dependent. 
The  late  Professor  Bain,  of  Aberdeen,  is  responsible  for 
the  first  two,  and  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  William 
James,  of  Harvard,  for  the  others. 

(1)  When  we  have  made  up  our  mind  to  start  on  a 
new  course  we  must  launch  ourselves  with  as  strong  and 
decided  an  initiative  as  possible.  We  must  use  every 
legitimate  means  to  strengthen  our  determination,  even 
employing  those  which  may  appear  trivial  to  others. 

(2)  We  must  never  suffer  an  exception  to  occur  till 
the  new  habit  is  securely  rooted  in  our  life.  If  we  have 
decided  to  go  in  for  a  bath  each  morning,  and  have  had 
a  fair  start  off,  it  is  very  unwise  for  any  reason  to  omit 
it  any  morning,  as  we  may  find  it  more  difficult  to  con- 
tinue on  succeeding  mornings.  We  must  strike  firmly 
and  keep  on  striking  if  we  are  to  make  a  permanent 
impression  on  the  enemy,  which  in  this  case  is  the  plas- 
ticity of  the  nervous  system. 


354      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

(3)  We  must  seize  the  first  possible  opportunity  of 
acting  on  every  resolution  we  make,  and  on  every  emo- 
tional prompting  we  experience,  in  the  direction  of  the 
habits  we  may  aspire  to  gain. 

(4)  We  should  not  waste  time  in  talking  too  much 
about  our  intentions,  but  carry  them  into  action  with 
energy.  We  may  talk  for  months  about  going  to  New 
York,  but  until  we  set  foot  in  the  steamer  we  have  made 
no  real  progress.  It  is  pathetic  to  hear  the  expression 
of  good  intentions  practically  strangled  at  their  birth, 
just  as  it  is  to  hear  regrets  at  wasted  opportunities.  Up 
to  the  age  of  thirty,  Darwin  was  passionately  fond  of 
music  and  poetry,  but  thereafter  was  quite  unable  to 
enjoy  them  because  he  ceased  to  gratify  his  taste  for 
them  with  regularity.  The  tracks  made  in  the  semi-fluid 
brain  substance  are  easily  obliterated  by  ceasing  to  use 
them,  just  as  even  a  coach  road  will  become  overgrown 
with  grass  if  it  be  for  a  time  discarded.  Daily  effort  is 
necessary  to  keep  us  in  the  wholesome  path,  and  there- 
fore it  is  necessary  for  us  to 

(5)  Keep  the  faculty  of  effort  alive  by  a  little  gratui- 
tous practice  every  day.  Eegular  exercise  will  prevent 
our  muscles  from  atrophy,  and  preserve  our  wind ;  regular 
bathing  will  train  our  skin  to  resist  the  invasion  of  cold ; 
regular  meals  will  prevent  indigestion. 

We  cannot  cheat  nature.  We  may  occasionally 
neglect  or  ignore  the  laws  of  health,  and  think  we  have 
not  suffered  thereby,  but  an  impression  has  been  made 
or  effected  on  our  brain  cells  which  is  registered  there 
for  all  time,  so  that  when  our  reserves  are  called  upon, 
balance  of  vital  force  to  satisfy  the  demand  has  been 
wholly  or  partially  embezzled.  No  matter  how  strong  a 
man  may  be,  he  cannot  continue  regularly  to  expend 
more  energy  than  he  is  able   to  manufacture,  without 


MODERATION  355 

paying  the  penalty  some  day.  No  matter  how  weakly 
a  man  may  be,  he  cannot  continue  regularly  to  obey  the 
laws  of  health  without  one  day  reaping  the  reward  in 
increased  vigour  and  health  of  body  and  mind. 

Moderation  has  been  inculcated  and  practised  in  all  Modera- 
ages.  Aberuethy's  famous  prescription  "  live  on  sixpence  ^?^  ^^  ^^^ 
a  day,  and  earn  it,"  will  be  recalled  in  this  connection. 
His  original  advice  to  a  wealthy  patient  suffering  from 
indigestion  was  to  steal  a  horse,  so  that  the  incarceration 
which  would  be  the  outcome  of  this  exploit  would  compel 
a  parsimonious  regimen  and  diet.  Cyrus,  the  creator  of 
the  Persian  Empire,  subsisted  from  childhood  on  the 
simplest  and  plainest  diet  of  vegetable  food  and  water, 
whilst  his  soldiers  adhered  to  the  same  rigorous  fare. 
Edison  tells  us  that  for  two  months  he  lived  on  12  oz. 
of  food  per  day,  taking  absolutely  no  exercise,  and  re- 
taining his  weight  of  185  lb.  When  working  at 
serious  problems,  he  is  careless  of  sleep,  and  has  done 
without  it  for  five  days  and  nights  on  occasion.  The 
confession  of  physiological  malpractice  in  the  one  direction 
is  a  striking  testimony  to  the  effects  of  physiological 
virtue  in  the  other. 

The  long  duration  of  life  attained  by  many  nervous 
dyspeptics  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  they  are  forced 
to  adopt  a  spare  regimen,  and  do  not  get  their  organs 
overloaded  with  fat,  whilst  their  intestinal  digestion  is 
well  performed.  Discomfort  in  the  stomach  is  frequently 
a  salutary  process,  and  those  whose  stomachs  tolerate 
anything  in  unlimited  quantities  are  not  wholly  to  be  con- 
gratulated. Sydney  Smith,  the  celebrated  gourmet,  was 
something  of  an  authority  on  the  question  of  moderation, 
for  he  declared  that  during  his  life  he  had  devoured  forty- 
one  cartloads  of  meat  and  drink  beyond  the  requirements 
of  health,  after  which  none  need  be  surprised  to  hear 


3S6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

that  in  the  evening  of  his  days  he  was  the  victim  of 
"  seven  distinct  diseases."  He  says  :  "  All  people  above 
the  condition  of  labourers  are  ruined  by  excess  of  stimu- 
lant and  nourishment,  clergy  included.  I  never  yet  saw 
any  gentleman  who  ate  and  drank  as  little  as  was 
reasonable." 

In  the  advocacy  of  moderation,  however,  we  are  not 
at  the  mercy  of  isolated  examples  such  as  we  have 
mentioned.  In  these  latter  days  the  question  has  been 
put  to  the  test  of  scientific  experiment  by  Professor 
Chittenden,  of  Yale,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
aided  in  his  work  by  the  co-operation  of  the  United 
States  Government  and  the  Carnegie  Institute,  and  in 
this  capacity  was  enabled  to  investigate  the  matter  on  a 
large  scale.  The  record  of  his  experiments  is  so  inter- 
esting that  I  give  it  here  in  detail. 
A  Ee-  He  was  not  satisfied  that  the  observations  made  by 

Experi-  Voit  and  Atwater  on  the  dietetic  habits  of  the  people 
ment.  ]-^g_(j  established  the  true  physiological  nutritive  require- 
ments of  the  body.  The  investigations  made  by  Professor 
Atwater  into  the  diet  of  fifteen  thousand  people  cost 
the  American  G-overnment  $880,000,  and  Chittenden 
considered  that  they  were  not  physiologically  accurate. 
His  aim,  therefore,  was  to  demonstrate  the  true  nutri- 
tive requirements  of  the  body  as  contrasted  with  the 
dietetic  habits,  and  he  required  that  during  the  experi- 
ment the  following  four  points  should  be  carefully  kept 
in  view : — 

(1)  That  nitrogen  equilibrium  be  maintained. 

(2)  That  physiological  equilibrium  be  maintained, 

i.e.  the  body- weight  should  not  be  reduced. 

(3)  That  physical  efficiency  be  maintained. 

(4)  That  the  body  should  retain  its  power  of  re- 

sisting disease. 


MODERATION  357 

He  therefore  selected  men  of  the  well-to-do  class  from 
various  social  grades — six  brain  workers  (university  pro- 
fessors and  medical  men) ;  twenty  men  from  the  Army 
Medical  Corps,  representing  the  moderate  muscle  workers  ; 
eight  university  athletes,  men  working  their  brains  moder- 
ately and  their  muscles  excessively.  From  October  1903 
to  June  1904,  every  scrap  of  food  and  drink  these  men 
ingested  was  carefully  weighed  and  measured,  their  daily 
excretions  analysed,  and  at  stated  periods  their  "  nitrogen 
equilibrium  "  was  ascertained.  By  this  means  they  were 
prevented  from  demonstrating  the  effects  of  moderation 
at  the  expense  of  their  bodily  tissues.  The  underlying 
conception  was  to  find  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of 
food  on  which  the  health,  strength,  and  body-weight  may 
be  maintained  while  doing  the  accustomed  work  effi- 
ciently. We  know  that  a  superfluity  of  protein  food 
is  especially  harmful,  as  in  the  body  it  is  split  up  into 
compounds  of  which  many  are  actually  poisonous.  These 
are  slowly  excreted,  and  in  the  process  of  excretion  are 
apt  to  damage  the  kidneys,  at  the  same  time  often 
originating  headaches,  fatigue,  gout  and  rheumatism, 
etc. 

For  this  reason,  and  because  of  ease  of  estimatiou,  the 
problem  was  narrowed  down  to  the  discovery  of  the 
smallest  necessary  quantity  of  protein.  Up  to  this  time 
it  had  been  considered  that  we  required  120  grms.  of 
protein  daily,  i.e.  a  little  over  4  oz.  Yoit's  diet  standard, 
which  is  that  most  generally  accepted,  gives  118  grms. 
protein,  50  grms.  fat,  500  grms.  carbohydrate. 

Sir  Michael  Foster's  diet  for  moderate  workers  of 
about  150  lb.  weight  was  130  grms.  protein,  68  grms. 
fat,  494  grms.  carbohydrate.  The  results  obtained  liy 
Chittenden  are  remarkable,  and  may  be  tabulated  as 
follows : — 


358      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

To  maintain  nitrogen  equilibrium  and  body-weight, 
Foster  says  we  require  130  grms. ;  Chittenden  personally 
required  3  6  grms. ;  average  for  twenty  soldiers,  5  0  grms. ; 
average  for  eight  athletes,  55  grms. 

ISTor  were  these  results  attained  by  taking  increased 
proportions  of  fat  and  carbohydrate— a  transposition 
which  up  to  this  time  has  been  considered  quite  feasible. 
It  was  stated  that  3000  large  calories  (units  of  heat) 
were  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  body. 
Chittenden  found  that  he  personally  required,  for  a  time 
at  least,  less  than  2000  calories,  whilst  from  2000- 
2500  were  ample  for  men  doing  hard  work. 

The  details  of  this  investigation  are  extremely 
interesting.  Professor  Chittenden  himself  was  a  hard- 
working man  of  forty-seven  years  of  age,  accustomed  to 
live  well,  but  he  cut  down  his  diet  by  degrees  until  he 
came  to  live  on  what  at  first  sight  appears  to  be 
starvation  diet.     The  following  are  samples : — 

7.45  a.m.,  Breakfast — 

One-third  of  a  pint  of  coffee,  with  cream  and  sugar. 
No  solids. 


.30  ii.m.,  Dinner — 

Chicken 

50  grms. 

about 

2     oz. 

Mashed  potato 

131      „ 

» 

4i    „ 

Biscuits 

49      „ 

;> 

2 

Chocolate  pudding  . 

106      „ 

J) 

4       „ 

Butter  and  crackers 

42      „ 

»> 

u   „ 

Total  solids      .   378  grms.         „      14  oz. 


MODERATION  359 

6.30  p.TTi.,  Supper — 

Lettuce    sandwiches,  biscuits,  butter,  sponge  cake, 
oranges  and  tea,  the  total  solids  weighing  8  oz. 

The  whole  allowance  of  food  for  one  day,  therefore, 
only  weighed  1  lb.  6  oz. — about  two-thirds  of  what  the 
average  man  takes  three  times  a  day. 

The  athletes  appeared  to  fare  very  little  better : — 

Breakfast — 

Bread  .  .  .  .  .64  grms. 

Butter         .         .         .         .  .     9      „ 

Banana        .  .  .  .  .   70      „ 


Total  solids     .      5  oz. 
One  cup  of  coffee,  with  cream  and  sugar. 

Lunch — 

Boiled  eggs           .  .  .  .73  grms. 

Fried  potatoes      .  ,  .  .   75      „ 

Bread  and  butter  .  .  .   70      „ 

Stewed  apples       .  .  .  .   90     ,, 

Total  solids     .   11  oz. 
One  cup  of  coffee,  with  cream  and  sugar. 

Dinner — 

Bacon  .... 

Potato  croquettes . 
Bread  and  butter  . 
Chocolate     .... 

Total  solids     .   6|-  oz. 
One  cup  of  coffee,  with  cream  and  sugar. 


'6b 

grms. 

47 

» 

49 

J, 

45 

)) 

36o      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

The  soldiers'  diet  was  a  little  more  generous,  and  had 
the  advantage  that  it  could  be  compared  exactly  with 
the  food  ordinarily  consumed  by  American  soldiers. 


Specimen  Army  Eation. 


Breakfast — 

Beef  steak 
Onions 
Gravy 
Bread 


299 

grms. 

21 

jj 

175 

)> 

222 

)) 

Total  solids      .   19  oz. 
Coffee,  milk,  and  sugar,  1  pint. 


Dinner — 

Eoast  beef 

.   221  grms. 

Potatoes    . 

.  517     „ 

Bread 

.   148     „ 

Gravy 

.   154     „ 

Pie  . 

Total  solids 

.   184     „ 

.     38  oz. 

Coffee,  sugar,  and  milk,  1\  pint. 


Supper — 

Eoast  beef 
Potatoes    . 
Onions 
Bread 
Jam 


Total  solids 
Coffee,  milk,  and  sugar, 


.     96 

grms. 

.  260 

>5 

.      32 

>J 

.      32 

» 

92 

J) 

18 

OZ. 

pint. 

MODERATION  361 

Here  is  a  sample  of 

Peofessor  Chittenden's  Experimental  Eation. 


Breakfast— 

Griddle  cake 

.200  grms. 

Syrup  and  butter 

.      60      „ 

Banana      .... 

75     „ 

Total  solids 

12  oz. 

One  cup  of  coffee. 

Dinner — 

Salt  mackerel     . 

25  grms 

Potatoes    .... 

.  250     „ 

Turnips     .... 

150     „ 

Bread        .... 

75     „ 

Stewed  apples    . 

150     „ 

Total  solids 

23  oz. 

One  cup  of  coffee. 

Sup'per — 

Cabbage,  pepper  and  vinegar 

.   100  grms. 

Bread  and  butter 

95      „ 

Cake  and  cranberry  sauce     . 

275     „ 

Total  solids 

16  oz. 

One  cup  of  coffee. 

Thus,  instead  of  75  oz.  of  solid  food  and  3  pints  of 
coffee,  only  51  oz.  of  solid  food  and  If  pint  of  coffee 
were  taken ;  whilst,  instead  of  2  2  oz.  of  meat  in  their 
former  dietary,  they  now  ate  only  1  oz.  daily. 

The  results  of  this  dietetic  restriction  were  still  more 


362      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

wonderful  than  the  reduction  in  the  quantity,  for, 
although  a  diminution  of  weight  occurred  at  the  outset, 
it  speedily  ceased,  and  the  weight  then  remained 
constant  to  the  close  of  the  experiment.  The  appetite 
soon  became  accustomed  to  the  smaller  quantity,  work 
was  done  with  greater  ease  and  effect,  and  the  spirits 
became  lighter.  Even  the  smaller  meals  were  eaten 
with  much  greater  relish  than  the  larger  ones,  at  which, 
of  course,  we  need  not  be  surprised.  The  most  remark- 
able feature,  however,  was  the  increase  of  total  strength 
and  endurance,  which  on  the  average  was  50  per  cent,, 
a  sufficiently  striking  commentary  on  the  value  of 
moderation. 

It  has  always  been  known  that  it  v^as  possible  to  live 
and  work  on  remarkably  small  quantities  of  food ;  we 
have  Dr.  Eabagiiati's  statement,  that  no  man  should  eat 
more  than  a  pound  and  a  half  of  food  per  day,  and 
he  personally  restricts  his  allowance  to  nearer  12  oz. 
But  these  have  been  looked  upon  as  isolated  cases  with 
special  requirements.  We  have  not  hitherto  known  that 
it  is  quite  possible  to  take  thirty-one  men  at  random 
and  subject  them  to  such  a  rigorous  dietary  with  such 
beneficial  results. 

Now,  wliilst  the  facts  we  have  just  detailed  are  incon- 
trovertible and  form  in  themselves  a  powerful  argument 
for  moderation  in  eating  and  drinking,  there  are  not 
wanting  critics  who  assert  that  the  experiment  was  not 
continued  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  and  who  even 
place  quite  a  different  interpretation  upon  the  results. 
It  is  pointed  out  that  the  standard  diet  based  upon 
custom  may  be  in  excess  of  what  is  needed,  and  that 
economy  is  quite  possible  by  being  satisfied  with  (1)  a 
lessened  heat  production,  and  (2)  a  reduction  of  the  body- 
weight.     Fat  is  not  now  so  necessary  as  a  reserve  food 


MODERATION  363 

as  it  used  to  be  when  supplies  were  difficult  to  obtain. 
If  there  is  too  much  adipose  tissue,  it  can  only  cause 
a  waste  of  energy.  Protein,  again,  may  be  diminished 
largely  if  eaten  along  with  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
When  an  equal  number  of  molecules  of  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  cells,  the 
highest  percentage  of  destruction  is  in  the  protein 
molecules,  the  next  highest  in  the  carbohydrates,  and 
the  least  in  the  fat.  If  a  small  number  of  protein 
molecules  and  a  relatively  large  number  of  carbohydrate 
and  fat  molecules  be  presented  to  the  tissue  cells,  then 
the  influence  of  the  more  numerous  molecules  asserts 
itself,  so  that  the  carbohydrate  and  fat  are  used  up  and 
become  "  protein  sparers."  It  is  therefore  easy  to 
maintain  nitrogen  equilibrium  upon  a  minimum  of 
protein  when  it  comes  to  the  tissues  along  with  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat.  It  is  a  common  but  wasteful  plan 
to  take  protein  at  one  meal  and  carbohydrates  at 
another,  as  is  frequently  done  in  indigestion ;  but  a 
vegetarian  diet  with  carbohydrate  and  proteins  intimately 
mixed,  so  that  they  reach  the  tissues  at  the  same  time, 
is  one  that  lends  itself  to  the  maintenance  of  nitrogen 
equilibrium  on  a  relatively  small  amount  of  protein.  An 
infant  of  six  months  old  consumes  14  grms.  of  protein 
in  milk  daily.  It  has  therefore  been  computed  that  an 
adult  on  this  basis  should  only  require  74  grms.  daily, 
which  is  much  on  a  par  with  Chittenden's  results. 

But  the  protein  minimum  is  not  necessarily  the 
protein  optimum.  The  matter  has  to  be  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  accumulating  reserves  as  well  as  of 
meeting  the  normal  and  necessary  expenditure  of  energy. 
A  diet  rich  in  proteins  is  supposed  to  increase  the 
resistance  of  the  body  to  infective  diseases,  especially 
tuberculosis,  and   there    is    a    possibility    of    danger   in 


364      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

limiting  the  amount  of  circulating  protein  in  case  of 
emergency.  Vegetarians  long  ago  pointed  out  that  it 
was  not  necessary  to  make  up  for  low  protein  by  an 
increase  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  on  a  vegetarian 
dietary,  as  we  have  just  seen,  this  is  quite  true,  but 
discretion  has  to  steer  a  course  between  these  advantages 
and  the  dangers  of  superfluous  protein  above  referred  to. 

No  doubt  Chittenden's  low  protein  diet  would  be  all 
right  for  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  or  even  for  longer 
in  those  accustomed  to  a  sedentary  mode  of  life,  but  by 
and  by  the  vitality  would  be  so  lowered  that  it  would  affect 
the  health  in  one  way  or  another.  It  is  a  common 
experience  that  in  times  of  stress  and  strain,  as  in  famine 
times  in  India,  it  is  the  underfed  that  suffer  most.  The 
quantity  of  food  required  depends  on  the  occupation, 
the  ability  to  digest  and  absorb,  and,  above  all,  upon  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  individual.  The  standard  diet 
is  constructed  for  a  man  of  70  kilogrammes,  and  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  vegetarian  nations,  in  which  a  low  protein 
consumption  obtains,  are  composed  of  men  much  less  in 
weight  than  this. 

The  weakness  of  Professor  Chittenden's  calculations 
is  that  they  are  too  quantitative  and  insufficiently  heedful 
of  secondary  consequences ;  thus  the  bodily  weight  of 
his  subjects  must  have  been  actually  kept  up  by  the 
retention  of  water  in  the  tissues  in  place  of  fat  which 
was  destroyed,  and  to  which  it  was  much  inferior  as  a 
reserve  of  endurance  and  energy. 

Protein  and  carbohydrate  will  sustain  life  indefinitely, 
whereas  protein  plus  fat  is  effective  only  for  a  short 
time.  The  amount  of  protein  really  necessary  for  the 
continuance  of  life,  in  the  absence  of  exceptional  calls 
uj^on  the  system,  is  exceedingly  small. 

It  is  also  stated  that  many  of  the  men,  especially  the 


MODERATION  365 

athletes,  returned  to  their  former  diet  at  the  close  of 
the  experiment,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  in  any 
case  much  of  the  benefit  was  due  to  the  regular  life 
and  the  unique  form  of  social  communion  in  vogue. 

In  order  to  determine  the  best  amount  of  protein  for 
its  sailors,  the  Japanese  Government  commissioned  two 
battleships,  the  one  on  91  grms.  of  protein  and  the 
other  on  155  grms.  per  man  per  day.  The  experiment 
lasted  for  close  upon  three  years,  and,  as  it  was  then 
discovered  that  the  latter  had  much  less  sickness  than 
the  former,  the  larger  amount  of  protein  was  adopted  as 
the  best. 

There  is  another  well-known  experiment  of  two  groups 
of  ten  cows  each,  which  for  three  years  were  fed,  the 
one  on  the  usual  diet,  and  the  other  on  a  low  protein 
ration.  At  the  end  of  two  years  the  latter  group  had 
lost  weight,  but  their  physical  tone  was  good.  In  the 
third  winter,  however,  they  began  to  fall  off  in  flesh, 
and  their  coats  became  exceedingly  harsh,  so  that  the 
protein  had  to  be  increased. 

When,  however,  every  objection  has  been  carefully 
considered,  we  are  entitled  to  hold  that  convincing 
testimony  has  been  recorded  in  favour  of  moderation. 

With  the  above  facts  in  our  possession,  the  conclusion  Diet  and 
seems  inevitable  that  extreme  conditions  must  be  present  ^^"'^^^se- 
before  people  can  die  from  the  effects  of  taking  too  little 
food.  There  are  other  factors  in  the  situation  when 
deaths  are  recorded  as  being  due  to  starvation.  Cold, 
dirt,  badly  ventilated  houses,  lack  of  a  desire  to  live  in 
a  depressing  environment,  have  much  to  do  with  the 
physical  deterioration  of  the  poorer  classes. 

It  is  fairly  certain  that  the  good  results  of  conflicting 
dietary  "  reforms  "  depend  upon  the  one  point  in  which 
they  all  agree,  namely,  reduction  in  quantity,  which  is 


366      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

of  far  greater  importance  than  the  chemical  constitution 
of  the  dietary.  There  is  a  very  general  impression  abroad 
that  as  a  nation  we  are  given  to  over-eating,  and 
reflective  people  often  inquire  how  they  may  check  this 
propensity. 

Speaking  frankly,  I  do  not  consider  that  the  average 
man  who  employs  his  days  in  hard  work  and  takes 
regular  exercise  is  at  all  likely  to  over-eat  himself,  and 
I  am  sure  that  the  man  who  follows  the  laws  of  health 
as  taught  in  these  pages  will  not  err  in  that  direction. 

It  is  quite  a  different  matter,  however,  with  the  man 
who  gets  so  immersed  in  business  affairs  by  the  age  of 
forty  that  he  forgets  his  exercise  and  other  forms  of 
recreation.  The  good  appetite  he  has  developed  before 
middle  life  is  apt  to  continue  and  be  gratified,  and  the 
excess  is  either  deposited  as  fat  or  excreted  by  kidneys, 
liver,  bowels,  and  lungs  with  a  great  loss  of  energy  and 
much  overwork  in  the  organs  mentioned.  One  or  other 
of  them  is,  therefore,  apt  to  become  diseased.  The 
heart,  also,  has  more  to  do  than  it  can  overtake,  and 
hence  is  liable  to  become  dilated  or  otherwise  de- 
generated. Over-eating  is  usually  accompanied  by  an 
over-indulgence  in  alcohol  and  other  stimulants  or 
narcotics,  and  this  is  the  secret  of  many  a  breakdown 
before  the  age  of  fifty,  and  the  development  of  some 
degenerative  change  in  the  tissues  which  may  lead  to 
an  early  death. 

The  practice  of  moderation  should  not  cease  with 
eating  and  drinking,  but  should  be  carried  out  in  relation 
to  all  the  issues  of  bodily  life.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
to  enter  into  further  details  on  these  points,  as  each 
must  be  satisfied  in  his  own  mind  as  to  what  constitutes 
moderation,  and  a  knowledge  of  his  constitution  and 
temperament  will  be  the  best  guides  in  the  matter. 


MODERATION  367 

PEACTICAL    SUiMJTAEY. 

1.  It  is  generally  agreed  by  centenarians  that 
regularity  and  abstinence  are  secrets  of  long  life. 

2.  The  adoption  of  regular  habits  of  life  not  only 
saves  time,  but  tends  to  the  conservation  of  energy. 

3.  The  sooner  we  can  arrange  that  most  of  our 
physical  activities  are  relegated  to  the  region  of  habit, 
the  better  for  our  bodies. 

4.  Most  of  even  our  unconscious  activities  can  thus 
be  brought  under  control,  e.g.  digestion,  by  efficient 
mastication, 

5.  Most  cases  of  constipation  are  due  to  failure  to 
attend  regularly  to  the  evacuation  of  the  bowels. 

6.  Eegular  meals  are  of  prime  importance. 

7.  Eegularity  in  the  practice  of  bad  habits  is  equally 
potent  in  enslaving  the  body. 

8.  An  unnatural  "  craving "  can  only  be  got  rid  of 
by  refusing  to  continue  the  practice  of  the  bad  habits. 

9.  Chronic  or  recurring  ill-health  is  often  due  to 
what  may  be  unworthy  satisfaction  of  a  craving  of  the 
appetite. 

10.  When  we  cannot  resist  some  food  accessory  such 
as  tobacco,  alcohol,  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  it  is  high  time  to 
expunge  it  from  our  daily  life.  Even  tea  and  coffee 
may  be  the  cause  of  much  bad  health. 

11.  The  acquisition  of  good  habits  is  not  a  formidable 
task  if  we  only  regularly  and  intelligently  practise 
them  in  time. 

12.  Moderation  is  of  equal  value  with,  and  practically 
includes,  regularity.  This  is  especially  true  of  our 
eating  and  drinking. 

13.  Science  has  demonstrated  that  it  is  possible  to 
live  and  work  on  exceedingly  small  quantities  of  food, 

24 


368      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

although  extreme  asceticism  may  ultimately  injure  the 
vitality.     It  is  therefore  unwise  to  over-eat. 

14.  The  man  whcf  practises  the  laws  of  health  as 
inculcated  in  this  book  is  not  likely  to  over-eat.  One 
valuable  index  of  over-nutrition  is  excess  of  fat. 

15.  The  practice  of  moderation  should  not  be  limited 
to  eating  and  drinking,  but  should  be  carried  out  in 
relation  to  all  the  exigencies  of  bodily  life. 

[During  the  early  part  of  this  year  1909,  I  spent  some  time  at 
Yale  University  obser-\ang  the  important  work  whicli  is  there 
carried  on  by  Professor  Chittenden  and  his  assistants.  I  desire  to 
record  here  the  unvarying  courtesy  with  which  I  was  treated  and 
the  valuable  assistance  given  to  me  in  my  investigations.  I  had 
the  good  fortune  to  return  to  England  in  the  same  boat  as  Professor 
Chittenden,  who  during  the  voyage  very  kindly  revised  the  type- 
written manuscript  of  this  chapter.  In  accordance  with  his 
suggestions  the  text  has  been  altered  here  and  there,  but  this  in 
no  way  reduces  the  strength  of  the  argument  for  moderation.  I 
also  take  the  liberty  of  recording  a  few  of  Chittenden's  observations 
on  the  criticisms  of  his  prolonged  experiment  without  desiring  to 
assume  the  responsibility  of  stating  that  it  is  in  any  way  a  complete 
answer  to  his  critics. 

Chittenden  contends  that  in  health  it  would  be  impossible  to 
maintain  the  body-weight  for  more  than  a  few  days  by  the  reten- 
tion of  water  in  the  tissues  in  place  of  fat  which  had  undergone 
destruction.  It  would  be  quite  out  of  the  question  for  this  to 
happen  during  an  experiment  lasting  over  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  days. 

Regarding  the  statement  that  a  diet  rich  in  protein  increases  the 
resistance  of  the  body  to  disease,  he  quoted  Dr.  Reid  Hunt's 
experiments  at  "Washington.  Two  groups  of  dogs  were  fed  on  a 
low  protein  and  a  high  protein  diet  respectively.  After  a  period 
of  this  feeding  they  were  subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  same 
poison.  It  was  then  found  that  the  dogs  fed  on  the  low  protein 
diet  could  withstand  three  times  more  of  the  poison  before  suc- 
cumbing to  it  than  those  fed  on  the  high  protein  diet. 

With  reference  to  the  experiment  made  by  the  Jajianese  navy, 
when  an  increase  of  the  protein  in  the  diet  caused  such  an  improve- 


MODERATION  369 

ment  in  the  health  of  the  crew,  it  is  not  necessary  to  infer  that 
this  was  due  to  the  protein  per  se.  Protein  pure  and  simple  is  not 
easily  iitilised  in  the  body  as  a  food.  It  is  almost  certain  that  it 
must  first  become  a  salt  of  calcium,  potash  or  soda  before  it  can 
become  available  as  a  food.  The  influence  of  these  and  other 
mineral  salts  on  the  nutrition  of  the  body  is  not  well  understood, 
but  it  must  be  great,  as  witness  the  ravages  of  scurvy  before  the 
days  of  lime  juice. 

The  diminution  of  Beri-Beri,  therefore, — said  to  be  due  to  the 
increased  protein  in  the  diet  of  the  Japanese  navy, — may  very  well 
have  been  produced  by  the  increase  of  the  mineral  salts  in  the 
more  liberal  dietary.] 


CHAPTER    XL 

CHEERFULNESS. 

LAW  X.~"  Cultivate  cheerfulness,  hopefulness  of 
mind,  and  placidity  of  temper.  Much  may  be 
done  by  constant  practice  to  secure  these  desirable 
endowments,  even  for  those  of  a  pessimistic 
temperament.'' 

]\Iind  and  fTlHE  influence  of  the  mind  over  the  body  has  been 
°''"^'  X  appreciated  in  a  general  way  from  the  very 
earliest  times,  but,  thanks  to  Braid,  Hack  Tuke,  and 
Schofield  in  the  medical  profession,  as  well  as  a  host  of 
irregular  practitioners  in  these  latter  days,  our  informa- 
tion has  become  more  precise  and  definite,  so  that  it  is 
now  in  a  fair  way  to  be  utilised  as  a  therapeutic  agent 
and  take  its  place  as  a  branch  of  the  healing  art.  If  we 
would  realise  in  the  fullest  degree  how  cheerfulness,  hope- 
fulness, and  mental  placidity  aid  us  in  maintaining  the 
health  of  the  body,  we  must  briefly  consider  the  functions 
of  the  mind,  and  we  are  in  a  favourable  position  to  do 
this  satisfactorily,  as  we  have  already  some  acquaintance 
with  the  brain  and  its  anatomy  and  physiology.  (See 
section  on  "  Best,"  Chapter  V.) 

We  have  previously  noted  that  there  is  an  inseparable 
connection  between  the  more  complex  nervous  tissues 
and    mental    phenomena.       We    have     seen     that    the 


CONSCIOU,'^ 


_         UNCONSCIOUS 


Diagram  to  illustrate  Brain  and  Nerve  Action.     (Adapted 
from  Functional  Nerve  Diseases.     A.  T.  Schofield.) 


jf^;OTOP._^£.^ 


Reproduced  from  Eanney's  Lectures  on  Nervoiis  Diseases. 
In  the  original  it  is  beautifully  coloured,  and  is  a 
diagram  designed  by  Professor  Ranney  to  illustrate 
the  probable  functions  of  different  areas  of  the 
cerebral  cortex. 


CHEERFULNESS  371 

operation  of  the  mental  function  produces  changes  in  the 
brain,  although  all  cerebral  changes  do  not  necessarily 
result  in  cerebral  action,  as  vasomotor  and  nutritive 
changes  may  take  place  without  producing  mentality. 
Mind  is,  however,  not  simply  a  secretion  of  the  brain. 
The  two  are  essentially  distinct,  like  the  piano  and  its 
player.  Even  Herbert  Spencer  clearly  affirms  that  there 
is  not  the  remotest  possibility  of  interpreting  mind  in 
terms  of  matter. 

The  essential  activities  of  the  higher  nervous  system 
can  be  best  apprehended  from  a  study  of  the  accompanying 
rough  diagram.  From  above  downwards  this  diagram- 
matic representation  of  the  brain  is  divided  into  three 
parts  by  the  horizontal  lines. 

(1)  The  uppermost,  irregularly  convoluted,  superficial 
or  cortical  area  of  the  brain,  in  which  resides  all 
conscious  mental  action.  It  is  the  seat  of  consciousness, 
intellect,  and  directing  intelligence,  and,  although  doubt- 
less many  sensations  reach  it  of  which  we  are  unconscious, 
still  we  now  know  that  we  can  never  become  conscious 
of  any  stimulus  that  does  not  reach  the  cortex. 

(2)  The  middle  region  where,  beneath  the  vaulted 
grey  substance  of  the  brain,  nestles  the  basal  ganglia, 
chief  among  which  are  those  presiding  over  vision, 
sensation,  and  motion.  This  is  the  seat  of  the  Vital 
Principle,  together  with  such  mental  powers  as  are 
possessed  by  the  animals  in  common  with  man.  This  is 
the  region  of  acquired  reflexes  and  unconscious  action, 
because,  although  life  with  all  its  complexities  of  move- 
ment and  sensation,  special  and  general,  can  be  conducted 
after  the  removal  of  all  the  tissues  corresponding  to 
section  1,  it  is  carried  on  without  the  consciousness  of 
the  individual,  and  therefore  without  his  consent. 

(3)  The  lowest  or  medullary  region,  in  which  reside 


372      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

the  centres  for  circulation  and  respiration.  It  is  the 
seat  of  mere  physical  existence  or  natural  reflexes, 
because,  although  without  the  above  two  layers  life  is 
quite  possible,  it  is  a  mere  vegetative  existence  without 
motion  or  sensation. 

Now,  we  have  already  seen  that  all  these  tissues  are 
composed  of  cells  and  fibres  embedded  in  neuroglia  and 
supplied  freely  by  capillary  blood  vessels,  the  cells 
residing  chiefly  in  the  grey  matter  of  the  cortical  area, 
and  the  basal  ganglia  and  the  fibres  connecting  them 
with  every  cell  and  tissue  in  the  body. 

Messages  or  stimuli  pass  from  the  cells  in  the  organs 
or  tissues  of  the  periphery  through  the  posterior  part  of 
the  spinal  cord,  and  a  response  is  recorded  in  one  of 
four  different  ways.  (1)  The  message  may  not  get 
beyond  the  spinal  cord,  but  be  shunted  across  to  its 
front  portion  and  materialise  in  a  reply  through  the 
motor  centres  there ;  or,  (2)  it  may  go  higher  to  the 
medulla  and  there  be  answered ;  or,  (3)  still  higher  to 
the  basal  ganglia ;  or,  (4)  yet  higher  to  the  cortical  area. 
Only  in  this  last  will  consciousness  be  brought  into 
action :  all  the  other  responses  are  in  the  nature  of 
reflexes,  as  they  are  called. 

In  the  region  of  consciousness,  however, — over  and 
above  the  response  to  external  stimulus, — volition  or 
voluntary  action  is  possible,  and  this,  without  the 
necessity  of  a  message  from  the  outside,  may  originate 
an  impulse  acting  on  any  of  the  body  tissues. 

The  method  whereby  this  takes  place  is  really  only  a 
matter  for  conjecture,  but  it  is  supposed  that  each  cell 
contains  an  idea  which  must  at  first  have  been  received 
from  without  by  a  process  of  training  or  education.  No 
change  is  produced  in  the  composition  of  the  cell  by  its 
reception,    but    a    rearrangement    of    its    tiny    particles 


CHEERFULNESS  373 

occurs,  which  may  only  be  temporary.  If  the  repetition 
of  the  idea  be  sufficiently  frequent  or  the  original 
impression  strong  enough,  then  the  idea  becomes  part  of 
the  permanent  stock  at  the  command  of  its  possessor, 
more  or  less  easily  capable  of  being  recalled  or  recollected, 
as  we  say.  This  liability  to  recollection  is  increased  by 
the  junction  of  the  processes  of  one  cell  with  one  or 
more  neighbouring  cells,  and  this  joining  of  hands  re- 
inforces the  potential  energy  and  is  the  physical 
substratum  in  the  "  association  of  ideas  "  so  well  known 
to  psychologists,  which  is  the  fundamental  basis  of  all 
the  functions  of  the  brain.  Even  although  this  con- 
ception is  only  theoretical,  it  is  convenient  to  retain  it, 
because  it  furnishes  a  working  hypothesis  for  the  better 
understanding  of  the  working  of  the  brain,  without  the 
necessity  for  believing  that  it  is  divided  into  certain 
compartments  labelled  the  will,  the  intellect,  the  judg- 
ment, the  memory,  the  reasoning  power,  and  so  forth. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  functioning  of  the  brain  is 
brought  about  in  the  first  place  by  efforts  of  attention, 
compelling  the  cells  to  focus  themselves  on  the  matter 
in  hand,  and  that  this  results  in  the  formation  of  all 
sorts  of  habits,  practical,  emotional,  and  intellectual, 
which,  although  difficult  at  first,  become  by  repetition 
almost  automatic.  The  basal  ganglia  are  the  centres  in 
the  brain  which  preside  over  these  acquired  reflexes  or 
habits,  and,  reasoning  by  analogy,  they  can  only  become 
possible  in  the  method  above  described  of  junction 
between  the  cells  and  fibres  to  make  a  well-worn  track 
or  path,  much  in  the  same  way  that  continual  walking 
over  a  green  field  creates  a  footpath.  The  basal  ganglia 
may  be  brought  into  action  by  a  stimulus  from  above,  i.e. 
by  voluntary  action,  or  from  below,  i.e.  by  reflex.  But 
behind  the  voluntary  action,  if  it  is  to  culminate  in  any- 


374      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

thiug  more  thau  a  mere  animal  existence,  there  must  be 
something  else,  the  "  ego  "  or  attention  or  whatever  is  the 
psychic  or  spiritual  entity  which  differentiates  us  from 
all  creation.  At  this  point  there  is  a  division  in  the 
camp,  one  company  of  scientists  saying  that  the  nervous 
tissues  themselves  produce  the  psychic  phenomenon  we 
call  mind,  and  hence  called  materialists  or  monists,  and 
another  section  saying  that  there  is  a  spiritual  entity 
which  acts  upon  the  brain  much  as  a  player  upon  the 
piano,  hence  called  dualists  or  vitalists.  In  my  opinion 
the  latter  is  the  only  doctrine  which  can  explain  the 
action  of  the  brain,  as  even  the  bodily  functions  of 
digestion  and  secretion  cannot  be  explained  by  a 
mechanical  or  material  theory  alone.  It  is  always 
necessary  to  postulate  the  existence  of  life  or  vitality. 
The  Field  ISTow,  very  much  takes  place  in  the  mind  of  which  we 
are  absolutely  unconscious,  the  conscious  activities  indeed 
being  only  those  to  which  we  give  attention.  It  may  be 
said  that  our  inner  life  is  built  up  of  streams  of 
consciousness,  a  constant  succession  of  knowledge, 
sensations,  desire,  deliberation,  continually  passing  and 
repassing.  We  do  not  know  whence  these  originate,  but 
many  think  they  can  only  be  explained  by  the  hypothesis 
of  a  spiritual  existence  behind  the  merely  material.  At 
any  given  moment  there  exists  a  field  of  consciousness, 
built  up  of  combinations  of  concepts  or  ideas  and 
emotional  states.  This  field  is  of  a  kaleidoscopic  nature, 
but  it  is  always  possible  to  recognise  a  central  idea, 
called  "  the  focal  object,"  and  a  whole  mass  of  sur- 
rounding ideas,  each  one  of  which  is  called  "  the 
marginal  object,"  any  one  of  them  being  at  any  moment 
liable  to  become  "  the  focal  object," 

When  we  talk  of  "  making  up  our  mind "  we  apply 
the  focal  object  for  the  time  being  to  any  or  all  of  the 


of  Con- 
sciousness. 


CHEERFULNESS  375 

marginal  objects  in  succession,  until  we  find  one  which 
so  fits  it  and  reinforces  it  that  the  problem  is  for  us,  and 
for  the  moment  at  least,  solved.  Now,  these  fields  of 
consciousness  must  be  composed  more  or  less  of  groups 
of  associated  ideas,  the  central  one  of  which  acts  and 
reacts  on  each  or  all  of  the  marginal  ones,  producing 
some  form  of  stimulation  of  more  or  less  intensity 
according  to  circumstances.  Out  of  a  possible  large 
number  only  one  group  is  selected  to  undergo  further 
definite  activity  when  the  mind  is  made  up,  but  it  must 
not  be  thought  that  the  evanescent  effect  on  the  other 
cells  is  altogether  lost,  nor  that  the  effect  is  confined  to 
the  cortical  area  in  which  all  this  process  is  taking 
place. 

We  have  seen  that  there  is  practically  an  illimitable 
supply  of  cells  for  the  influence  to  reach,  and,  as  one 
field  of  consciousness  succeeds  another  almost  uncon- 
sciously as  it  were — certainly  without  our  definite  con- 
trol— there  must  be  a  huge  surplusage  of  more  or  less 
unconscious  influences,  such  as  may  arise,  for  instance, 
from  the  mere  contiguity  of  different  ideas,  even  in  this 
the  realm  of  consciousness.  The  "  unconscious  mind," 
in  fact,  has  no  rigidly  refined  location ;  it  involves  both 
the  cortical  area  and  (perhaps  to  a  greater  extent)  the 
region  of  the  basal  ganglia,  which  exercise  many  of  their 
functions  in  an  unconscious  manner,  Schofield  has 
traced  an  analogy  between  the  mind  and  the  spectrum, 
with  its  visible  rays  of  light  corresponding  to  the  con- 
scious mind  and  its  upper  (chemical)  and  lower  (heat) 
invisible  rays  corresponding  to  the  supraconscious  and 
subconscious  minds  respectively,  which  together  make 
up  the  "  imconscious  mind." 

Now,  almost  all  the  action  of  the  mind  upon  the 
body  as  a  factor  in  disease  or  treatment  is  unconscious, 


376      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

and  most  of  the  influence  exerted  by  a  physician  on  his 
patient,  apart  from  drugs  and  other  physical  therapeutic 
agencies,  is  unconscious.  We  have  just  almost  unwit- 
tingly introduced  another  factor,  namely,  the  influence  of 
mind  upon  mind,  but  this  will  be  dealt  with  later  on, 
whilst  at  present  we  shall  endeavour  to  elucidate  the 
difficulties  of  the  influence  of  the  mind  over  the  bodily 
functions.  This  influence  can  be  exercised  in  three 
well-recognised  ways,  namely:  (1)  by  the  intellect  or 
thought,  (2)  by  the  emotions  or  feelings,  (3)  by  the  will 
or  volition,  although,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  is  not 
considered  necessary  to  delimit  any  specific  area  on  the 
surface  of  the  brain  presiding  over  the  special  functions 
in  question. 

It  is  certain  that  the  cells  in  the  cortical  area  act 
upon  the  ganglia  below  them,  and  by  means  of  a  variation 
in  the  nerve  and  blood  supply  excite,  pervert,  or  depress 
the  sensory,  motor,  vasomotor  and  trophic  nerves, 
and  through  them  cause  changes  in  secretion,  muscular 
contraction,  nutrition,  and  sensation.  Practically  all  but 
one  of  the  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  are  devoted  to"^ 
the  special  functioning  of  the  special  senses,  but  the 
odd  one,  the  pneumogastrie,  is  of  the  most  profound 
importance,  as  it  directly  supplies  the  lungs,  heart,  and 
stomach,  and  sends  important  branches  to  join  hands 
with  the  sympathetic,  thus  controlling  in  large  measure 
almost  all  of  the  internal  organs. 

For  centuries  it  has  been  known  that  the  expectation 
of  the  action  of  a  remedy  often  causes  us  to  experience  its 
operation  beforehand,  and  John  Hunter  more  than  one 
hundred  years  ago  used  to  declare  that  he  was  confident  he 
could  fix  his  attention  on  any  part  until  he  had  sensation 
in  that  part.  Herbert  Spencer  could  not  think  of  a  slate 
being  rubbed  with  a  dry  sponge  without  there  running 


CHEERFULNESS  377 

through  him  the  same  thrill  that  the  action  itself 
produced. 

The  psychical  faculty  may  play  upon  the  sensory 
centres  in  the  brain  so  as  to  produce  certain  sensorial 
phenomena,  and  may  also  so  affect  the  brain  that 
impressions  on  the  senses  received  from  the  outer  world 
may  be  modified  in  various  ways.  Thus  the  senses  of 
smell,  sight,  sound,  taste,  and  touch  may  all  be  excited  by 
expectation,  fancy,  or  imagination,  and  it  is  needless  to 
cite  the  innumerable  examples  on  record  or  familiar  in 
ordinary  experience.  It  is  more  practical  to  know  that, 
by  directing  the  thoughts  too  frequently  on  the  stomach, 
many  phenomena  may  be  induced,  notably  a  sensation 
of  weight  which  will  aggravate  or  may  even  originate 
dyspepsia.  The  confident  assertion  that  a  person  subject 
to  epileptic  fits  will  have  an  attack  frequently  induces 
one,  and  one  of  my  own  patients  tells  me  she  is  afraid 
to  say  how  long  it  is  since  she  had  an  attack,  as  one 
almost  invariably  comes  on  thereafter. 

The  action  both  of  the  heart  and  of  the  respiration  is 
quickened  by  simply  concentrating  the  mind  upon  them 
without  any  emotion  or  anxiety  whatever.  Sydenham 
relates  that  when  he  was  studying  a  book  upon  a  certain 
disease  he  felt  sure  he  had  suffered  from  it,  and  but 
for  the  fact  that  he  was  changing  his  subject  at  frequent 
intervals,  always  thinking  he  had  the  fresh  disease,  he 
is  certain  he  would  have  succumbed  to  one  or  other  of 
them.  It  is  well  known  that  expectation  may  induce 
sleep  at  a  certain  hour  and  may  cause  awakening,  and 
everybody  knows  the  influence  of  regular  habit  and 
expectation  on  the  action  of  the  bowels.  The  effect  of 
a  purgative  pill  has  been  rendered  inert  and  sleep 
induced  instead  by  the  belief  that  an  opiate  had  been 
administered.     A  French  doctor  gave  sugared  water  to 


37S      THE  LA^VS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

one  hundred  patients  in  hospital,  and  then  told  them 
that  he  had  inadvertently  given  them  an  emetic  instead, 
with  the  result  that  shortly  afterwards  no  fewer  than 
eighty  of  them  were  unmistakably  sick. 

But,  powerful  as  the  influence  of  thought  is  upon  the 
bodily  functions,  it  is  quite  eclipsed  by  the  effect  of  the 
emotions.  It  is  not  easy  to  define  the  emotional  part 
of  our  being,  although  we  all  know  the  difference  between 
purely  intellectual  operations  of  the  mind  and  that  vivid 
state  of  feeling  or  sentiment  which  is  equally  distinct 
from,  though  generally  involving,  bodily  sensation 
whether  of  pleasure  or  pain.  It  differs  also  from  the 
will,  although  ideas  may  excite  emotions  and  these  form 
motives  followed  by  acts  of  volition,  so  that  reflective, 
emotional,  and  volitional  states  are  intimately  bound 
together. 

Emotions  may  be  elevating  and  pleasurable,  or  depress- 
ing and  painful.  Some  have  located  the  emotions  in 
the  sympathetic  and  especially  the  solar  plexus,  because 
of  the  curious  epigastric  sensation  so  often  felt  when 
under  the  influence  of  emotions  usually  described  as 
"  qualms  of  the  stomach,"  but  it  is  more  likely  that  they 
originate  in  the  medulla  or  in  some  of  the  basal  ganglia. 

A  stimulus  from  the  brain  above  on  these  ganglia 
produces  the  emotional  state  which  can  and  undoubtedly 
does  affect  the  sensations,  and,  although  central  in  origin, 
these  are  referred  by  the  mind  to  the  peripheral  termina- 
tions of  the  nerves  involved.  That  is  the  reason  why, 
just  before  delivering  a  speech  or  engaging  in  some 
important  undertaking,  those  familiar  sensations  are 
experienced;  they  are  really  excited  by  the  brain,  and 
therefore  purely  psychical,  although  they  are  felt  as  if 
they  were  at  the  stomach  or  at  the  heart.  It  is  doubt- 
less true  that  there  is  a  flushing  of  the  blood  vessels  of 


CHEERFULNESS  379 

the  stomach,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  stomach, 
comparable  with  the  blushing  of  the  face,  but  the  real 
stimulus  is  in  the  brain. 

Besides  affecting  the  sensations,  emotion  has  a  great 
influence  on  the  muscles,  especially  of  the  face,  hands 
and  respiration ;  and  expression,  indeed,  depends  on 
contractions  and  relaxations  of  the  facial  muscles. 
Cheerfulness  excites  all  the  muscular  system,  and  in  its 
higher  degrees  produces  laughter,  dancing,  jumping,  and 
leaping  ;  when  moderate,  it  causes  the  mouth  and  the 
eyes  to  smile,  the  upper  lips  to  be  raised  and  the  teeth 
displayed.  It  brightens  the  eyes,  dilates  the  nostrils, 
raises  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  the  eyelids  and  eyebrows, 
increases  the  activity  of  the  vocal  muscles,  giving  a 
peculiar  expression  to  the  voice,  and  in  short  causes  an 
opening-out  and  stimulation  of  all  the  functions  of  the 
body.  This  is  doubtless  brought  about  by  an  increased 
supply  of  blood  to  all  the  vital  parts,  because  we  know 
that  the  heart  is  accelerated,  the  temperature  slightly 
raised,  the  oxygenation  of  the  blood  increased,  and  the 
action  of  the  skin  and  kidneys  stimulated,  so  as  to 
hasten  the  excretion  of  their  poisons. 

Depressing  emotions  like  anger  and  grief  produce 
symptoms  which  are  just  the  reverse  of  all  this,  a 
constricting,  contracting,  or  shutting-up  influence,  con- 
veyed doubtless  by  a  diminished  blood  supply  and  nervous 
stimulation  to  the  internal  organs.  "  Care  killed  the 
cat"  is  a  common  saying,  and  we  know  that  strong 
emotion  like  anger  can  easily  poison  the  saliva,  so  that 
the  buccal  secretion  of  an  enraged  animal  is  essentially 
the  same  as  the  venom  of  a  viper.  We  know  that  fear 
checks  the  secretion  of  the  saliva,  and  the  method  is 
employed  in  India  to  detect  guilty  people.  The  suspects 
are  arranged  in  a  row  and  given  dry  rice  to  chew,  when 


380      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

those  who  fail  to  insalivate  the  mass  to  a  normal  extent 
are  quickly  singled  out.  Pleasant  emotions  increase  the 
flow  of  gastric  juice,  and  this  fact  is  indicated  by 
the  title  of  "  psychic  juice "  applied  to  it  by  Pawlow. 
The  same  effect,  too,  is  produced  on  the  bowels,  so  that 
constipation  is  as  often  due  to  depressing  emotions  which 
inhibit  the  secretion  of  the  intestinal  canal  as  to  any 
other  cause. 

The  close  association  between  bile  and  bad  temper  has 
passed  into  the  language,  and  doubtless  an  atrabilious 
subject  owes  his  melancholy  to  a  thickening  of  the 
secretion  of  the  liver,  due  to  its  diminished  fluidity.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  milk  of  a  nursing  woman 
can  be  poisoned  by  a  fit  of  temper,  and  one  case  is 
recorded  where  during  a  period  of  four  years  a  young 
woman  successively  lost  two  children  and  a  foster-child 
through  suckling  them  immediately  after  being  in  a 
violent  passion.  Strong  mental  emotion  often  causes 
vomiting,  and  a  sudden  fright  has  produced  jaundice, 
whilst  a  sudden  fit  of  anger  has  often  caused  apoplexy 
and  death.  There  is  inexhaustible  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  various  mental  states,  emotions,  and  passions 
have  their  peculiar  effects  upon  the  body,  and  may  induce 
in  turn,  if  indulged  in  to  any  great  extent,  their  own 
peculiar  forms  of  disease,  which  may  become  chronic 
afflictions. 

Special  mention  must  be  made  of  the  effects  of  fear 
on  the  body,  as  this  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the 
consideration  of  that  most  prevalent  of  all  obsessions — 
by  some,  indeed,  considered  a  disease — which  we  describe 
as  worry.  In  its  most  intense  form  of  terror  it  is  char- 
acterised by  a  husky  voice,  spasmodic  respirations  pro- 
ducing breathlessness,  and  even  an  actual  suspension  of 
breathing  for  the  time  being,  a  shuddering  and  shrinking. 


CHEERFULNESS  381 

whilst  the  stillness  of  death  reigns.  When  not  so 
severe  as  to  rob  the  victim  of  voluntary  movement  by- 
paralysing  the  muscles,  it  induces  rapid  muscular  action 
in  the  form  of  flight,  and  fixes  and  contracts  other  parts 
of  the  body  in  the  instinctive  attempt  to  find  conceal- 
ment by  diminishing  the  size.  The  general  effect  is 
that  of  crouching,  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the 
flexor  muscles,  in  contradistinction  to  the  effect  of 
courage,  which  contracts  the  extensors,  producing  ex- 
pansion and  height.  Trembling,  palpitation,  and  pallor 
are  observed,  almost  as  severe  as  would  be  experienced 
by  the  actual  suffering  of  the  evil  feared. 

It  is  capable  of  producing  all  sorts  of  maladies. 
Indeed,  Mosso  says  that  to  mention  all  their  names 
would  mean  copying  nearly  the  whole  index  of  a  patho- 
logical text-book.  He  quotes  from  Dubois  the  case  of 
two  brothers  who  were  bitten  by  a  mad  dog.  One  had 
to  leave  at  once  for  America,  and  thought  no  more 
about  it.  Twenty  years  afterwards,  when  he  returned, 
he  heard  that  his  brother  had  died  of  hydrophobia, 
whereupon  he  immediately  fell  ill  and  died  with  all  the 
symptoms  of  the  same  disease.  During  epidemics  fear 
plays  immense  havoc,  and  this  is  especially  noticeable 
amongst  soldiers  in  a  defeated  army,  who  succumb  more 
easily  to  fevers,  and  also  die  more  readily  of  their 
wounds.  A  lady  who  received  news  of  the  death  of  a 
relative  from  cholera  in  a  distant  country  was  so 
frightened  that  she  suffered  for  eight  days  from  severe 
diarrhoea,  and  only  recovered  after  being  convinced  that 
there  was  not  a  single  case  of  cholera  within  hundreds 
of  miles. 

An  infinite  variety  of  ailments  are  aggravated  by 
fear,  and  on  the  other  hand  many  ailments  are  cured 
by  it.     It  appears  to  produce  its  effects  on  the  system 


382      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


by  diminishing  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  cerebral 
centres,  and  when  one  considers  that  one-fifth  part  of 
the  blood  goes  to  supply  the  brain,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand the  importance  of  fluctuations  in  the  transmission 
of  blood  to  this  organ. 

The  relationship  between  fear  and  worry  is  very 
close,  and  consists  in  this,  that,  whilst  the  former  is 
concerned  with  some  tangible  event,  the  latter  responds 
to  a  more  indefinite  source  of  disturbance,  and  is  indeed 
simply  a  long-drawn-out  condition  of  fear. 

We  have  seen  that  the  attention  is  the  driving  force 
of  the  mind,  inasmuch  as  it  hnks  up  the  various  cells 
and  fibres  necessary  to  exact  thought  and  action,  but 
to  be  practically  effective  in  the  affairs  of  life  ib  must 
ever  seek  a  goal  outside  of  the  individual,  and  hence  its 
impulse  is  centrifugal. 

Worry,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  excess  of  uncontrolled 
attention,  causing  that  driving  force  to  be  wasted  on 
the  brain  cells  and  fibres,  and  refusing  to  allow  the 
escape  of  the  potential  force,  so  that  it  runs  to  waste 
among  the  machinery,  putting  it  out  of  gear,  causing 
intense  friction,  and  mayhap  breakage  of  some  of  its 
component  parts.  Some  consider  that  the  condition  of 
worry  is  normal,  because  it  is  essential,  if  one  is  to  be 
successful  at  all,  that  he  should  pay  a  great  deal  of 
attention  to  business  and  duty,  but  the  criterion  of  ex- 
cessive attention  is  that  it  produces  inaction  instead  of 
action,  and  renders  the  individual  less  and  not  more 
capable  of  his  responsibilities. 

It  would  certainly  be  better  to  describe  this  ordinary 
everyday  mental  prevision  by  some  such  term  as 
"  anxious-mindedness,"  leaving  the  word  "  worry "  to 
signify  the  morbid  introspection  which  paralyses  efforts 
and  eats  out  life  itself  like  a  canker.     It  is  bound  to 


CHEERFULNESS  383 

wear  out  the  brain  cells  in  the  long  run,  and  in  any 
case  quickly  induces  in  them  a  condition  of  fatigue. 
This  result  is  easily  understood  when  we  consider  that 
it  springs  from  an  application  of  the  same  focal  object 
or  central  idea  to  the  same  marginal  objects  time  after 
time — these  marginal  objects  being  refractory  to  the 
victim's  habitual  train  of  mental  association  or  to  his 
inadequate  energy  of  mental  synthesis. 

Thus  the  futility  of  worry  is  revealed  in  all  its 
scientific  harshness,  and  the  analysis  reinforces  the 
popular  saying  that  "  it  is  useless  to  worry."  But  it  is 
also  useless  to  tell  the  unfortunate  sufferer  not  to  worry, 
as  some  more  affirmative  and  positive  antidote  is 
required.  The  only  possible  way  of  escape  from  the 
trouble  is  to  change  the  field  of  consciousness,  and, 
instead  of  allowing  the  attention  wildly  to  rush  about 
on  the  perplexing  area  like  a  caged  lion,  to  coax  it  or 
compel  it  to  pass  over  to  some  other  field  of  conscious- 
ness where  the  focal  object  or  central  idea  can  easily 
find  a  selection  of  marginal  objects  with  which  it  is 
usually  in  the  habit  of  joining  hands.  By  this  means 
the  inaction  and  frustration  which  is  symptomatic  of 
worry  is  replaced  by  activity,  and  so  long  as  the  atten- 
tion is  directed  to  a  line  of  thought  which  makes  for 
action  the  loss  of  valuable  energy  in  worrying  is 
suspended.  Worry,  indeed,  has  been  replaced  by  a 
useful  outlet  for  energy  v-iich  was  hitherto  running 
riot  in  the  most  delicate  of  internal  parts,  wearing  them 
out,  and  through  them  wasting  the  whole  vital  forces  of 
the  body. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  a  good  concrete  illustration  of  The  Eav- 
the  effects  of  worry,  but  the  following    is  one    of    the  ^Q^r°^ 
best  that  has  occurred  to  me.     Let  us  imagine  a  manu- 
factory whose  varied  machinery  is  worked  by  hydraulic 
25 


384      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

power,  represented  by  a  head  of  water  stored  in  a  huge 
cistern  in  the  top  of  the  building.  A  variety  of  pipes 
closed  by  stop-cocks  emanates  from  the  bottom  or  sides 
of  the  cistern,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  obtain  the 
power  required  to  set  the  machinery  in  motion  is  to 
connect  each  of  those  pipes  with  its  appropriate  outlet 
in  the  shape  of  a  hose,  and  turn  on  the  stop-cock.  Let 
us  suppose  further  that  in  the  evening,  when  work  has 
ceased,  the  water  which  has  been  utilised  in  moving  the 
various  machines  is  automatically  pumped  back  again 
to  the  cistern  in  the  upper  storey.  We  have  then 
established  a  fairly  accurate  analogy  with  the  body.  If, 
now,  the  stop-cock  of  one  of  these  pipes  in  the  cistern 
were  to  be  opened  without  being  connected  with  its 
corresponding  hose  -  pipe,  then  not  only  would  the 
machine  worked  by  that  apparatus  be  unable  to  move, 
but  the  water  would  escape,  causing  a  gradual  diminu- 
tion of  the  stored-up  energy,  and  at  the  same  time 
saturating  all  the  premises  with  the  rapidly  escaping 
fluid,  causing  probably  an  immense  amount  of  damage 
to  the  whole  structure  and  its  contents.  In  addition  to 
this,  however,  the  energy  would  be  lost  for  ever,  as  it 
could  not  be  collected  and  returned  to  the  cistern.  If, 
for  any  reason,  the  pipe  could  not  be  connected  with  Its 
appropriate  hose-pipe,  the  only  way  to  save  the  stored- 
up  fluid  or  energy  would  be  to  shut  off  the  stop-cock, 
or,  if  this  were  impossible  or  premature,  to  connect  it 
with  one  of  the  other  hose-pipes,  even  at  the  risk  of 
working  a  different  part  of  the  machinery. 

The  analogy  is  not  perfect,  but,  I  hope,  fairly  clear 
and  emphatic  enough  to  demonstrate  that  the  only 
remedy  for  worry  is  either  to  engage  the  attention 
sufficiently  to  enable  the  victim  to  go  to  sleep — when 
during  rest  the  unconscious  mind  will  usually  solve  the 


CHEERFULNESS  385 

difficulty,  and  in  any  case  will  repair  the  damage 
wrought  to  the  exhausted  brain  cells — or  else  to  divert 
the  energy  into  some  other  channel  where  it  can  be 
utilised  in  such  a  way  as  to  engage  the  attention  fully. 
If  neither  of  these  be  done,  then  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time  for  the  condition  of  the  body  to  become  quite  as 
parlous  as  that  of  the  manufactory  just  mentioned, 
because  worry  acts  and  reacts  on  the  human  system, 
establishing  a  vicious  circle,  first  producing  insomnia 
and  depression  of  spirits,  then  inducing  chronic  fatigue 
and  neurasthenia,  thereafter  indigestion  and  lack  of 
sleep,  and  so  weakening  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the 
body  that  they  are  unable  to  repair  the  daily  waste, 
and  when  this  has  lasted  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
disease  soon  makes  its  appearance.  This  may  be 
hypochondria,  hysteria,  nervous  debility,  or  other  form 
of  nervous  disease,  not  excepting  insanity ;  it  may  lead 
to  over-indulgence  in  drink  or  other  poisons,  may  even 
lead  to  suicide,  and  in  any  case,  if  it  goes  no  further, 
so  lowers  the  vitality  of  the  body  that  it  is  liable  to 
fall  an  easy  prey  to  infectious  disease. 

The  causes  of  worry  are  varied,  but  in  the  long  run 
resolve  themselves  into  some  form  of  irritant.  The  chief 
desire  of  the  human  race  is  to  attain  happiness,  and  the 
cause  of  worry  will  always  be  found  to  be  something 
which  interferes  with  this  quest.  There  will  generally, 
however,  exist  something  in  the  shape  of  a  predisposing 
cause  which  is  usually  some  form  of  poisonous  agency,  e.g. 
over-indulgence  in  alcohol,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  or  other 
toxic  substance,  and  we  have  already  seen  that  overwork 
is  capable  of  being  included  in  this  category.  All  of 
these  causes  render  the  tissues  less  capable  of  resisting 
the  inroads  of  any  irritant,  and  liable  to  respond  to  a 
weaker  stimulus  than  during  health. 


386      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


The 

Physical 
Effects  of 
Volition. 


The  exciting  causes  may  be  divided  into  physical, 
mental,  and  moral,  and  may  be  either  removable  or  not. 
This  applies  to  each  of  the  classes,  but  it  is  perhaps 
most  easily  comprehensible  in  the  first  class,  as  we  can 
understand  the  difference  between  the  discomfort  attend- 
ing such  a  disease  as  eczema  and  that  associated  with 
cancer, — the  hopefulness  possible  with  the  one  and  the 
hopelessness  attached  to  the  other.  Mental  problems 
are  a  fruitful  source  of  worry,  not  only  those  arising  in 
business,  but  also  those  more  obscure  and  abstruse 
occurring  in  metaphysics  and  theology,  many  of  which 
are  quite  insoluble.  It  is,  however,  in  the  moral  nature 
that  most  of  the  causes  of  worry  are  found  to  exist,  as 
it  is  likewise  from  it  that  consolation  arises  when  for 
any  reason  the  cause  of  worry  cannot  be  removed. 

As  the  moral  nature  is  so  closely  bound  up  with  the 
will,  we  must  now  shortly  turn  our  attention  to  the 
analysis  of  the  latter  and  to  its  influence  upon  the  body. 
It  is  perhaps  more  diflicult  to  define  the  will  than  the 
intellect,  and,  as  we  were  driven  there  to  advance  a 
concrete  though  hypothetical  explanation  of  its  working, 
it  will  suffice  here  to  say  that  there  is  no  faculty  of 
will  inhabiting  a  specific  portion  of  the  brain,  but  that 
the  same  cells  with  their  ideas  or  thoughts  co-operate 
with  some  emotional  state  or  feeling,  and  the  desire  to 
do  a  certain  act,  which  is  generated  by  the  feeling,  is 
present.  "  Will  is  only  the  name  for  the  action  upon 
suggestions  of  conduct,  which  are  so  clear  in  our  minds 
that  we  are  able  to  deliberate  upon  them,  acting  only 
after  some  reflection,  and  so  having  a  sense  that  the 
action  springs  from  our  own  choice."  The  real  sources 
of  action  are  thoughts  or  motives  or  suggestions,  without 
which  we  cannot  act,  and  which,  when  present,  compel 
us  to  act. 


CHEERFULNESS  387 

It  is  important  to  differentiate  between  the  wish  or 
desire  to  do  a  certain  thing  and  the  power  to  do  it.  A 
man  may  will  to  walk,  but  if  the  nerves  of  his  legs  are 
cut  his  will  is  quite  powerless  to  move  his  legs.  Again, 
a  patient  is  unable  to  speak,  however  much  he  wills  it, 
if  the  particular  centre  in  his  brain — Broca's  convolution 
— which  is  used  in  remembering  how  the  words  feel,  or 
sound,  be  destroyed.  In  a  case  of  hysterical  paralysis, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  parts  are  perfect,  but  the  will, 
the  desire  to  act,  is  paralysed.  As  Sir  James  Paget 
used  to  say,  "  It  is  not  that  such  a  patient  cannot,  nor 
will  not ;  it  is  that  she  cannot  will."  Finally,  it  is 
remarkable  that  in  certain  patients  having  partial 
paralysis  it  is  found  that,  when  their  eyes  are  bandaged, 
they  are  unable  to  use  their  limbs,  because  they  cannot 
realise,  without  seeing  the  limb,  how  it  would  feel  to 
move  it.  If,  however,  they  see  the  limb  they  are  able 
to  move  it  freely,  and  this  shows  the  dependence  of 
action  upon  the  thought  which  the  mind  has  at  the 
time,  i.e.  upon  the  suggestions  or  motives  in  the  mind. 

The  influence  of  the  will  upon  the  body  is  so  great  as 
to  be  capable  in  some  of  creating  ocular  spectra,  and  in 
others  of  feigning  an  attack  of  epilepsy  with  perfect 
accuracy.  Lockjaw  and  paralysis  could  by  some  be 
equally  induced  by  the  power  of  the  will,  but  the  most 
interesting  case  of  such  power  was  surely  that  of  Colonel 
Townshend,  who  was  able  at  will  to  produce  stoppage  of 
his  heart's  action  and  thus  simulate  death.  The  sequel, 
it  may  be  mentioned,  was  that  he  did  this  once  too  often, 
and  death  actually  took  place.  Darwin  mentions  a 
similar  case,  and  also  that  of  a  man  who  could  so  far 
increase  the  peristaltic  action  of  his  bowels  by  voluntary 
effort,  that  he  could  defsecate  at  any  time  in  half  an 
hour.     Many  other  instances  are  on  record  of  those  who 


388      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

could  at  will  dilate  or  contract  the  pupils  of  their  eyes, 
and  those  who  could  by  an  act  of  will  induce  vomiting. 
Mental  We  are  now  in  a  position  to  appreciate  the  fact  that, 

peutics.  ^s  i^  health  certain  mental  states  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing disease,  so  in  disease  they  are  capable  of  causing 
a  return  to  a  healthy  state.  Scattered  throughout  the 
literature  of  medicine  many  such  cases  are  to  be  found 
recorded,  but  in  his  classical  book  on  the  subject  Dr. 
Hack  Tuke  has  collected  for  us  a  large  number  of  the 
more  notable,  and  I  take  the  liberty  of  briefly  detailing 
a  few  of  these. 

Fear  or  imagination  is  well  known  to  exert  a  wonderful 
influence  over  such  a  painful  condition  as  toothache,  as 
witness  its  frequent  departure  at  the  moment  of  setting 
foot  on  the  dentist's  doorstep.  In  Devonshire  until 
quite  recently  a  sufferer  from  sciatica  would  be  made 
to  lie  on  his  back  on  the  bank  of  a  river  with  a  straight 
staff  by  his  side  between  him  and  the  water,  and  have  a 
form  of  nonsensical  words  repeated  over  him.  The 
frequent  and  undoubted  efficacy  of  the  treatment  was 
due  entirely  to  the  imagination.  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie 
records  the  case  of  a  young  lady  who  had  long  laboured 
under  hysterical  neuralgia  of  the  hip  and  thigh,  but  who 
immediately  lost  all  her  symptoms  on  being  thrown  from 
a  donkey  on  which  she  was  riding. 

Every  one  has  heard  the  story  of  the  doctor  who  left 
his  prescription  on  the  table  for  a  lady  who  suffered  from 
neuralgia  of  the  pleura,  saying,  "  Put  this  on  your  side," 
and  how  the  patient  literally  did  so  instead  of  obtaining 
the  prescribed  plaster,  and  in  the  event  was  cured.  A 
case  of  epilepsy  of  four  years'  duration  was  cured  on  the 
patient  receiving  a  dreadful  mental  shock  from  the 
circumstance  of  her  daughter  being  accidentally  burned 
to  death.     Fear   used    to   be  a  popular  remedy  in  the 


CHEERFULNESS  389 

treatment  of  whooping-cough,  just  as  in  some  towns 
to-day  it  is  quite  a  common  occurrence  to  find  the 
victims  of  that  malady  taken  for  a  walk  round  the 
local  gasworks,  and  a  case  is  recorded  of  a  child  who 
was  cured  by  a  good  thrashing.  A  woman  whose  hand 
by  reason  of  hysterics  had  been  for  thirty-eight  years 
closed  as  firmly  as  the  fist  of  a  boxer,  and  could  only  be 
opened  by  considerable  force,  was  opened  and  remained 
cured  on  the  emotional  appeal  of  a  Madame  de  St.  Amour. 

Paralysis  of  the  limbs  has  been  cured  by  the  terror 
aroused  by  a  thunderstorm,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy's 
unparalleled  cure  of  that  condition  was  due  to  aroused 
hope  and  expectation.  He  placed  a  thermometer  under 
the  tongue  simply  to  ascertain  the  temperature,  but,  as 
the  patient  avowed  he  was  better  thereafter,  having 
mistaken  the  manoeuvre  for  a  new  treatment  about  to 
be  tried,  the  fictitious  treatment  was  kept  up  for  a 
fortnight  once  a  day,  when  the  cure  was  consummated. 

Imagination  may  act  as  a  purgative,  as  illustrated  in 
the  recorded  case  of  a  young  woman.  Having  to  take  a 
purge  on  the  following  day,  in  the  form  of  a  medicament 
she  specially  disliked,  she  dreamed  that  she  had  taken 
the  bitter  dose,  and,  griped  by  the  imaginary  remedy, 
she  awoke  and  her  bowels  acted  freely  five  or  six  times. 
During  some  military  operations  in  India  an  officer  who 
was  confined  to  bed  with  asthma,  and  could  breathe  only 
in  the  erect  posture,  sprang  out  of  his  bed  on  an  alarm 
and  used  his  sword  with  such  execution  as  not  only  to 
impel  the  marauders  but  also  to  dispel  the  asthma. 
Dr.  Eush  mentions  the  case  of  a  captain  of  a  British 
man-of-war  confined  to  bed  by  a  severe  attack  of  gout 
in  his  feet,  who  was  suddenly  cured  by  hearing  the  cry 
of  "  Fire  "  aboard  his  ship,  and,  strange  to  relate,  never 
had  a  recurrence  of  his  malady.     Among  the  remedies 


^90      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTO 

for  drunkenness,  emotional  excitement  is  not  the  least 
peculiar.  Dr.  Witherspoon  tells  of  a  man  in  Scotland 
who  was  always  cured  of  a  fit  of  drunkenness  by  being 
made  angry,  by  a  tirade,  not  against  drunkenness  but 
against  religion. 

But  it  would  only  weary  the  reader  to  go  on  detailing 
the  cases  of  diseases  cured  by  the  exercise  of  imagination, 
expectation,  hope,  fear,  joy,  and  faith.  The  fact  is  un- 
questionable, and  it  now  remains  to  inquire  how  this 
verified  power  can  be  practically  utilised  for  purposes  of 
therapeutic  application. 

Who  will  gainsay  the  fact  that  the  confidence  reposed 
by  a  patient  in  the  bottle  of  medicine  is  often  the  sole 
factor  in  the  amelioration  of    his    disease?     Dr.  Eush 
says  he  has  often  prescribed  remedies  of  doubtful  efficacy 
m  the  initial  stage  of  acute  diseases,  but  never  till  he 
had  worked  his  patient  into  a  confidence  bordering  upon 
certainty  of  their  good  effects.     A  French  physician  for 
long  treated  his  cases  with  nothing  more  serious  than 
bread  pills  covered  with  silver  paper  and  contained  in  a 
box   with    the   prominent   label   "Purgatives,"  with  the 
profoundly  satisfactory  results  of  curing  their  constipa- 
tion, and  this  experience  has  been  repeated  too  often  for 
the    results    to    be    questioned.       Good    results    in    the 
treatment  of  disease  have  been  obtained  by  the  fantastic 
process  of  directing  the  attention  to  the  part  affected, 
and  then  by  means  of  a  pair  of  wooden  or  metal  tractors 
drawn  over  the   skin    extracting    the   pain  or  ailment. 
Cases  of  hydrophobia  and  other  equally  serious  diseases 
have  been  cured  by  the  exercise  of  the  will  in  a  fashion 
recalling  the  words  of  the  poet  Churchill 

"  The  surest  road  to  health,  say  what  you  will 
Is  never  to  suppose  we  shall  be  ill, 
Most  of  those  evils,  we  poor  mortals  know, 
From  doctors  and  imagination  flow." 


CHEERFULNESS  391 

As  a  reservation  to  the  last  couplet,  it  should  be  said 
that  in  many  cases  the  doctor's  presence  is  the  only 
therapeutic  factor  of  moment,  and  evidence  is  daily 
accumulating  that  hopefulness  and  cheerfulness  com- 
municated to  the  patient  are  among  the  most  wonderful 
of  remedial  agencies. 

The  renewal  of  the  bodily  tissues  is  a  process  which 
has  been  held  to  occupy  various  periods,  extending  from 
seven  years  to  a  much  shorter  duration  of  time.  In  any 
case  its  existence  helps  to  a  comprehension  of  the  fact 
that  the  healing  power  of  nature  can  be  reinforced  by 
the  confidence  generated  by  cheerfulness.  For  what  is 
this  vis  medicatrix  natiircB  but  the  life  principle  itself, 
which  exercises  its  beneficent  power  of  nutrition  through 
the  medium  of  the  nervous  system  ?  Now,  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  the  blood  vessels  of  the  cortex  of  the 
brain  are  flushed  and  dilated  by  the  presence  of  cheerful- 
ness, and  the  toning  and  stimulating  influence  is  conveyed 
by  the  life-giving  blood  and  nerve-current  to  every  tissue 
of  the  body,  literally  re-creating  them,  and  the  continuous 
reconstruction  of  the  tissues  must  obviously  exercise  a 
notable  effect  upon  a  patient's  progress. 

Medicines  and  other  therapeutic  remedies  are  of  value  The  Value 
in  removing  obstructions  to  the  flow  of  the  blood  and  f^inerg^,^" 
nerve  currents,  but  contain  no  curative  properties  within 
themselves.  They  help  to  remove  the  effects  of  violations 
of  the  laws  of  health,  but  when  these  have  been  cleared 
out  of  the  way  and  the  body  again  brought  into  har- 
monious relations  with  its  environment,  fortified  by  a 
calm  and  quiet  expectant  mental  attitude,  healing  is  as 
sure  to  take  place  as  it  is  that  snow  will  melt  in  sun- 
shine. If,  however,  we  are  dominated  by  fear  or  lack  of 
faith  and  confidence,  our  nervous  centres  are  depleted  of 
their  blood  and  we  are  apt  to  realise  the  very  contingency 


392      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

we  fear.  Evil  passions  like  anger,  jealousy,  lust,  malice, 
continual  fault-finding  and  grumbling  are  predisposed  to 
exercise  the  same  malign  influence  over  the  body. 

The  power  of  the  mental  factor  in  the  building  and 
rebuilding  of  the  body  is  most  subtle  and  profound. 
"  Make  yourselves  nests  of  pleasant  thoughts,"  says 
Euskin ;  "  none  of  us  as  yet  know,  for  none  of  us  have 
been  taught  in  early  youth,  what  fairy  palaces  we  may 
build  of  beautiful  thoughts,  proof  against  all  adversity." 
The  .time  has  come  when  the  true  physician  must  pay 
more  attention  to  the  healing  of  the  mind,  not  instead  of, 
but  in  addition  to  healing  the  body,  knowing  full  well 
that  the  mind  will  in  turn  do  its  share  in  healing  the 
body.  His  work,  indeed,  ought  to  be  to  keep  people  well 
rather  than  attempting  to  make  them  well  after  disease 
and  sickness  have  done  their  work.  He  must  teach  his 
patients  to  cultivate  cheerfulness,  goodwill,  and  service 
for  others,  knowing  full  well  that  the  first  will  be  the 
best  health  tonic,  just  as  the  last  two  are  the  best  heart 
tonics. 

The  true  way  of  attaining  personal  happiness  is  by 
reaching  forth  a  helping  hand  to  make  others  happy.  It 
can  never  be  found  by  searching  for  it  either  in  the  out- 
side world  or  in  ourselves,  but  it  lies  at  the  hand  of  him 
who  reaches  it  forth  to  assist  his  fellows.  Too  much 
attention  paid  to  our  own  bodies  is  not  always  productive 
of  good  health,  but  often  the  contrary. '  If  we  think 
about  our  health  at  all,  on  its  unfavourable  side,  we 
should  never  brood  upon  our  ailments  or  analyse  their 
symptoms.  The  soundest  course  is  by  constant  practice 
to  cultivate  a  strong  will  power  and  valiantly  fight 
against  the  ills  of  life,  remembering  that  our  thoughts 
and  imaginations  are  the  only  real  limits  to  our  possi- 
bilities.    As    a    rule  we    raise   our   own    mountains    of 


CHEERFULNESS  393 

difficulty,  and  no  man's  success  or  health  is  likely  to 
reach  beyond  his  own  confidence.  Be  an  optimist  and 
not  a  pessimist,  and  as  all  young  men  have  a  tendency 
to  the  latter  frame  of  mind,  the  earlier  one  starts  on  the 
better  course  the  greater  success  will  be  attained.  Not 
that  it  is  wise  to  be  over-anxious  about  our  success  any 
more  than  about  our  health,  as  such  savours  of  worry  and 
usually  frustrates  the  end  in  view.  The  existence  of 
Health  Clubs  and  Success  Clubs,  even  when  perfectly 
genuine,  savours  too  much  of  self-consciousness,  a  frame 
of  mind  most  uncongenial  to  good  results  in  either 
direction,  and  more  than  likely  to  lead  to  neglect  of  the 
conditions  necessary  to  the  desired  end. 

It  is  said  that  thoughts  are  forces,  and  from  the 
Western  Continent  comes  the  statement  that  in  the 
laboratory  they  are  being  subjected  to  physical  tests  and 
found  to  have  form,  quality,  substance,  and  power.  They 
are  said  to  emanate  from  us  like  waves  and  influence 
those  with  whom  they  come  in  contact  either  for  good 
or  evil,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  and  that  something 
of  the  kind  occurs  is  perfectly  evident  when  we  consider 
the  probable  explanation  of  telepathy.  The  unfortunate 
possessor  of  a  hypersensitive  or  supernormally  developed 
nervous  system  is  unquestionably  influenced  by  the 
mental  and  physical  condition  of  those  with  whom  he 
comes  into  contact,  and  this  may  often  be  the  cause  of 
disease.  There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  we  attract 
to  ourselves  influences  and  conditions  most  akin  to  those 
of  our  own  thoughts  and  lives.  Those  who  live  in  an 
atmosphere  of  gloom  attract  to  them  gloomy  things, 
those  always  discouraged  and  despondent  never  succeed 
in  anything  and  only  burden  the  lives  of  others.  The 
hopeful,  the  confident,  the  cheerful  are  the  recipients  of 
success.     Never  pay  a  man  back  in  his  own  coin  of  the 


394      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

moral  mint,  but  return  good  for  evil.  You  will  be  more 
hurt  than  hurting  if  you  try  the  opposite  way.  The 
psychology  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  reversing  as  it 
did  the  old  method  of  retaliation,  will  be  found  to  answer 
all  the  requirements  of  health  of  body  and  mind. 

Recognising,  therefore,  the  stupendous  power  for  good 
or  evil  which  the  mind  exerts  over  the  body,  we  need 
■'  not  be  surprised  that  an  effort  has  been  made  to  enrol 
It  m  the  systematic  resources  of  medical  skill,  and,  as  has 
been  already  said,  it  is  being  used  daily  in  an  unconscious 
manner  by  the  successful  physician  everywhere  In 
some  cases,  indeed,  it  is  the  only  treatment  which  is 
necessary,  and  this  applies,  of  course,  to  disease  of 
psychic  origin. 

The   term  "suggestion"  has   been  employed  for  this 
potent  remedy  whether  utilised  by  the  physician   in  a 
conscious   or   unconscious  manner   or   exercised   by   the 
patient   himself.     There   is   no    doubt    that    between   a 
medical  man  and  a  patient  who  is  said  to  have  confidence 
m  him  there  is   a   constant   interchange  of  psychic  or 
moral  force   and   response.     A   suggestion   may  be   de- 
scribed   as   an    influence   from    the  environment,  either 
physical  or  personal,  which  obtains  a  lodgment  in  the 
consciousness  and  leads  to  action;  and,  as  employed  in 
therapeutics,  it  is  usually  an  encouraging  idea  emanating 
from  the  physician,  either  directly  or  indirectly.     It  is 
not  persuasion,  or  rational  explanation,  but  appeals  to 
the  unconscious  mind,  although   it   works   through   the 
consciousness.      It    is   of    the   greatest    potency    in    the 
strong-minded,  and  least  capable  of  use  against  the  weak- 
mmded.     It  is  being  employed  every  day  in  the  most 
subtle    way     in    our     newspaper    advei'tisements,    and 
especially   in    the   descriptions  commercially  applied  to 
articles  of  food  and  drink. 


CHEERFULNESS  395 

When  recognised  as  a  suggestion,  it  is  apt  to  lose 
value,  and  hence  its  too  frequent  repetition  is  often 
self-stultifying.  When  used  as  a  medium  for  treatment 
between  physician  and  patient,  certain  conditions  are 
necessary  for  success,  such  as  earnestness  on  the  doctor's 
part,  with  monotonous  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  the 
careful  avoidance  of  any  foreign  idea,  a  quiet  impressive 
reposeful  manner,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  some  implica- 
tion of  immediate  execution  of  the  idea  suggested.  To 
explain  its  action  we  must  revert  to  our  hypothetical 
working  example  of  mental  functioning. 

In  every  field  of  consciousness  there  are  many  in- 
hibitory as  well  as  co-operative  marginal  objects,  and 
suggestion  acts  by  fixing  of  the  attention  on  one  partic- 
ular focal  object  and  quickly  and  firmly  linking  it  up 
with  as  many  co-operative  marginal  objects  as  possible. 
If  the  idea  be  translated  into  an  action  by  passing  it  on 
to  the  basal  ganglia,  then  the  hnks  are  more  firmly  bound 
together  and  a  stronger  chain  is  forced.  Once  get  the 
helpful  suggestion  by  this  means  out  of  the  region  of 
conscious  thought,  and  therefore  away  from  the  restraint 
of  inhibitory  or  opposing  concepts,  and  the  unconscious 
mind  will  keep  on  exerting  its  influence  in  the  positive 
direction. 

Suggestion  is,  of  course,  capable  of  acting  for  evil  as 
well  as  for  good,  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  auto- 
suggestion or  subjective  suggestion.  It  is,  in  fact,  to 
correct  the  bad  impressions,  the  doleful  anticipations  of 
evil  on  the  part  of  the  patient,  that  the  hopeful,  helpful 
suggestions  on  the  part  of  the  physician  are  of  such 
great  value.  To  translate  the  helpful  suggestion  into 
action  at  once,  i.e.  to  enlist  the  basal  ganglia  in  its  favour 
in  the  unconscious  mind,  is  really  to  effect  inhibition  by 
means  of  substitution,  and  this,  it  will  easily  be  under- 


396      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

stood,  is  a  more  efficacious  process  than  inhibition  by 
repression  or  negation.  The  latter  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
successful,  whereas  the  former  is  highly  potential,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  case  of  worry. 

We  have  seen  that  by  an  expectant  attitude  of  mind 
it  is  possible  to  arouse  ourselves  at  some  definite  time 
in  the  morning,  and  we  may  go  further  and  say  that 
by  willing  certain  things  before  falling  asleep,  their 
performance  is  frequently  assured  after  waking  in  the 
morning.  There  is  much  truth  in  this  assertion,  as  many 
people  can  prove  for  themselves ;  but  the  result,  whilst 
undoubtedly  due  to  suggestion,  has  something  in  common 
with  another  mental  condition,  namely,  hypnotism,  and  to 
this  we  must  now  shortly  direct  our  attention. 

Hypnotism  is  a  state  of  abnormal  consciousness  pro- 
duced by  suggestion,  which  may  proceed  from  a  hypnotist, 
a  sensation  or  an  idea.  When  by  any  cause  the 
attention  is  directed  upon  a  bright  object,  such  as  a 
crystal  or  a  button  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  without 
distraction,  the  patient  begins  to  lose  consciousness  in  a 
curious  manner.  This  loss  of  consciousness  is  of  three 
degrees,  and  may  amount  to  (1)  a  light  sleep,  or  (2)  a 
deep  sleep,  or  (3)  somnambulism  ;  this  last  being  the  con- 
dition developed  in  hona  fide  mesmeric  exhibitions. 

In  each  of  these  states,  curative  suggestions  can  be 
made.  In  the  first  the  subject  may  be  perfectly  able  to 
open  his  eyes,  although  told  he  cannot  do  so  ;  in  the 
second,  he  has  lost  the  power  of  moving,  but  he  can 
remember  everything  that  has  been  said  ;  in  the  third, 
which  need. not  result  in  actual  walking  about  but  only 
be  characterised  by  a  deep  lethargy,  there  is  complete  loss 
of  consciousness.  This  is  the  condition  most  favourable 
for  inducing  healing  effects,  and  in  it  the  following 
characteristics  are  noted  : — 


CHEERFULNESS  397 

(1)  A  peculiar  state  of  memory.  In  the  hypnotic 
condition  all  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  are  forgotten, 
and  after  waking  the  events  of  the  hypnotic  state  are 
forgotten.  When,  however,  hypnosis  is  again  induced, 
recollection  of  the  previous  hypnotic  state  takes  place. 
Thus  there  are  two  memories,  one  for  the  normal  con- 
dition and  one  for  the  hypnotic  condition. 

(2)  Capacity  for  receiving  and  acting  upon  suggestions. 
The  subject  will  think,  say,  and  do  anything  he  may  be 
told,  and  even  pain  or  pleasure  may  be  produced  at 
command.  The  skin  may  be  actually  scarred  with  a 
lead  pencil,  if  the  subject  be  told  it  is  a  red  hot  iron. 
Most  remarkable  of  all,  however,  the  suggestions  received 
during  this  state  may  not  be  acted  upon  till  long  after 
waking,  if  the  operator  has  commanded  them  to  be 
deferred  till  this  time.  This  is  called  post-hypnotic 
suggestion. 

(3)  The  senses  and  mental  faculties  are  intensely 
exalted,  so  that  hearing,  vision,  touch,  memory  are 
rendered  much  more  acute.  For  this  reason  the  patient 
may  receive  suggestions  not  actually  intended  by  the 
operator. 

(4)  A  condition  is  established  known  as  "  Eapport " 
whereby  the  subject  remains  completely  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  operator  and  is  open  to  suggestions  received 
from  him  alone.  Not  only  is  this  the  case,  but  fre- 
quently the  patient  is  insusceptible  to  hypnotism  by 
other  than  one  particular  person,  who  has  thus  immense 
influence  over  him,  though,  strange  to  say,  during  the 
unconscious  condition  the  hypnotist  can  transfer  this 
power  to  a  third  party. 

There  is  no  specific  method  of  producing  hypnosis, 
but  the  result  is  much  more  rapid  and  intense  in  pro- 
portion to  the  firmness  of  the  impression  that  it  is  going 


398      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

to  succeed.  The  most  usual  method  is  that  involving 
a  sensory  impression  with  a  fatigue  effort,  and  thus  the 
gazing  at  a  glass  ball,  a  metal  button  or  revolving  mirror, 
held  about  12  or  18  inches  from  the  eyes  in  such  a 
position  that  a  strain  is  produced  in  keeping  it  in  sight, 
is  one  of  the  best  in  vogue.  But  many  other  mystifying 
and  elaborate  performances  are  often  practised,  such  as 
incantations,  rubbings,  passes,  all  of  which  are  quite 
needless,  although  they  may  serve  to  work  in  the  way 
of  suggestion  upon  the  mind  of  the  subject. 

It  is  well  known  that  men  are  much  more  inclined 
to  fall  asleep  in  church  than  women,  and  the  explanation 
has  been  advanced  that  this  is  due  to  their  closer 
attention  to  the  preacher,  being  hypnotised  by  the 
steady  staring  in  a  monotonous  position  at  the  pulpit. 
Women,  on  the  other  hand,  are  less  concentrated  in 
their  attention  and  more  conscious  of  the  distractions  of 
their  environment. 

Most  people  in  ordinary  health  can  hypnotise  and  be 
hypnotised,  but  weak-minded  people  and  idiots  are  unable 
to  be  influenced,  being  incapable  of  fixing  their  attention 
with  sufficient  force  or  continuity.  Auto-suggestion, 
already  mentioned,  is  simply  self-hypnotisation.  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  awaking  a  patient  from  the  hypnotic 
state.  Needless  to  say,  the  process  should  not  be 
practised  upon  any  one  without  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration, and  especially  should  not  be  frequently 
resorted  to  in  the  same  subject.  It  should,  indeed,  be 
left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  medical  men  who  are 
themselves  sufficiently  expert  in  its  practice.  It  is 
well  known  that  criminal  suggestions  can  be  made 
during  the  hypnotic  state,  and  crimes  for  which  this 
explanation  suggests  itself  are  periodically  brought  to 
public  notice. 


CHEERFULNESS  399 

Many  remarkable  and  sensational  cases  of   the  cure  Other 
of  disease  by  hypnotic  suggestion  are  constantly  being  "^wges- 
reported,  but  in   this   country  it  has  not  gained  much  tion.' 
recognition  from  medical  men  as  an  agent  of  great  thera- 
peutic value.     It  is  used  chiefly  in  insomnia,  drunkenness, 
pains  of  a  neuralgic  or  rheumatic  character   and  those 
usually  of  a  functional  nature,  although  Braid,  who  is 
responsible  for  attracting  the  attention  of   the  medical 
profession  in  this  country  to  the  subject,  has  reported 
cases   of   organic   disease   cured  by   the   method.       The 
treatment  is  not  without  its  evils  and  its  dangers,  and 
it    is    an    undoubted    fact    that    it    often    produces    an 
aggravation  of  the  malady  it  was  meant  to  alleviate. 

The  explanation  of  its  good  effects  is  simple  enough 
to  the  reader  who  has  followed  with  intelligence  the 
statements  made  in  this  chapter.  The  hypnotic  state 
may  shortly  be  defined  as  an  artificial  trance  in  which 
the  unconscious  mind  can  be  easily  reached.  The  lower 
ranges  of  the  nervous  system  are  communicated  with, 
so  to  speak,  not  by  the  front  door  of  the  cortical  region 
but  through  a  postern  gate.  The  upper  cortical  area 
of  consciousness,  in  which  of  course  reside  all  the  possi- 
bilities of  inhibition,  is  shut  off  by  the  induced  sleep, 
and  the  ideas  suggested  are  then  able  to  filter  through 
without  hindrance  to  the  field  of  action  in  the  basal 
ganglia,  and  so  the  unconscious  mind  acts  without  the 
customary  intellectual  supervision.  The  method  must 
on  no  account  be  confused  with  mesmerism  or  personal 
magnetism,  because  no  entity  passes  from  the  operator 
to  the  subject,— there  is  no  actual  transference  of  any- 
thing tangible  or  physical,  at  least  nothing  that  can  be 
measured  by  our  present  methods  of  estimation,  and 
this  is  what  is  claimed  by  the  advocates  of  mesmerism. 
There  is  a  vast  array  of  other  methods  with  loud- 
26 


400      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

sounding  and  mysterious  names,  purposely  used  to  mystify 
the  public  and  which  are  practised  for  gain  by  all  sorts 
of  designing,  or  it  may  be  well-intentioned  people,  with 
the  view  of  heahng  disease ;  but  whatever  of  value  is 
contained  in  any  of  these  systems  must  be  without 
hesitation  referred  to  the  beneficent  action  of  suggestion, 
either  on  the  part  of  the  patient  where  his  consciousness 
is  intact,  or  on  the  part  of  the  physician  when  the  conr 
sciousness  is  extinguished  or  less  alert. 

Enough  has  probably  been  said  to  show  the  great  and 
marvellous  influence  which  the  mind  has  on  the  body, 
and  how  by  the  exercise  of  the  imagination  and  faith 
the  most  astounding  results  may  be  procured,  although 
there  are,  of  course,  limitations  to  their  beneficial 
influence.  These  limitations  have  been  abundantly 
demonstrated  more  particularly  in  Christian  Science 
and  Emmanuelism — the  latest  phases  of  psychic  therapy 
(or  treatment).  Little  more  remains  to  be  said,  except 
perhaps  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  direct  sugges- 
tion is  as  a  rule  not  nearly  so  potent  a  factor  in  the 
healing  of  the  body  as  indirect  suggestion,  and  this 
applies  with  greater  force  to  the  more  cultured  and 
educated  classes  whose  critical  instincts  are  more  readily 
aroused  by  obvious  attempts  to  influence  their  judgment 
or  conduct. 

i^evertheless,  as  has  been  pointed  out  chiefly  by 
laymen  and  non-professional  seekers  after  health,  there 
is  a  possibility  that  the  limitation  of  natm-e  may  be 
carried  to  great  lengths  in  this  connection  with  un- 
deniable advantage.  We  have  seen,  for  example,  that 
each  emotion  has  its  own  particular  expression  produced 
by  the  contractions  and  relaxations  of  certain  facial 
muscles,  and  it  remains  to  be  said  that  the  perpetuation 
or  artificial  production   of  such  a  physiognomic  action, 


CHEERFULNESS  401 

at  any  rate  during  a  period  of  depression,  is  followed  by 
a  deepening  of  the  emotional  state,  recognised  in  the 
axiom  that  "  Expression  deepens  emotion."  As  a  natural 
consequence,  a  condition  of  despair  would  only  be  intensi- 
fied and  prolonged  by  persisting  in  gloomy  countenance, 
whereas  it  may  be  alleviated  by  overmastering  the 
expression.  However,  this  is  not  all  the  truth,  because 
it  can  easily  be  demonstrated  that,  if  we  will  but  adopt 
the  physiognomic  features  of  joy  and  cheerfulness,  it  is 
impossible  to  escape  the  consequent  feeling  of  joy,  as 
any  one  can  prove  for  himself  if  he  will  but  go  to  his 
mirror  in  his  next  fit  of  the  "  blues  "  and  start  to  smile. 
Seconds  will  hardly  have  elapsed  ere  he  is  compelled  to 
feel  his  smile,  and  it  will  not  be  at  all  surprising  should 
he  at  last  burst  forth  into  uncontrollable  laughter — surely 
a  much  more  desirable  state,  whatever  the  condition  of 
his  affairs,  than  that  of  despair  and  dejection.  Erom 
the  bodily  point  of  view  there  is  not  so  much  wrong 
with  the  institution  of  smiling  clubs,  which  we  have 
heard  are  in  existence.  May  their  membership  increase, 
and  long  may  they  "  Laugh  and  grow  fat."  An  equally 
valuable  concrete  method  of  obtaining  the  beneficial 
physical  advantages  of  cheerfulness  is  to  tell  a  funny 
story  at  the  dinner-table,  if  possible,  every  day.  It  is 
a  sovereign  remedy  for  dyspepsia,  even  should  it  only 
be  carrying  out  the  injunction  to  "  Assume  a  virtue  if 
we  have  it  not."  Whatever  method  encourages  cheerful- 
ness in  the  life  of  the  individual  deserves  to  be  fostered, 
and  this  is  doubtless  the  real  reason  why,  to-day, 
attendance  at  the  theatres,  music  halls,  and  concerts  is 
not  looked  upon  in  the  deprecatory  fashion  obtaining 
only  a  few  years  ago.  Auto- 

In  conclusion,  I  would  desire  to  say  that  if  any  one  SuggestioTi 

1^1  •      •  ^^'^  Self- 

cares    to    practise   the  method   of   self-hypnotisation   or  Control. 


402      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

auto-suggestion,  by  the  process  of  trusting  to  ordinary 
sleep,  he  may  possibly  obtain  surprising  results.  It  is 
only  necessary  calmly  and  confidently  to  affirm  a  certain 
resolution  during  that  period  just  before  sleep  over- 
whelms him,  and  when  consciousness  is  gradually  waning 
into  somnolence,  and  in  subsequent  waking  hours  he  may 
be  astonished  to  find  how  often  it  is  realised.  There 
is  probably  nothing  very  novel  about  this  except  the 
conscious  affirmation  of  the  intention,  because  all  of  us 
doubtless  quietly  and  calmly  think  over  the  affairs  of  the 
day  that  has  passed,  and  adumbrate  the  probable  course 
of  action  on  the  ensuing  day.  It  is  doubtless  the 
training  of  the  attention  which  is  the  explanation  of  the 
remarkable  results  obtained. 

For  those  who  are  averse  from  the  consolation  of 
religious  faith  which,  being  the  best  example  of  inhibition 
by  substitution,  is  unquestionably  the  sovereign  remedy 
for  worry,  the  study  of  philosophy  is  best  calculated  to 
produce  that  mental  atmosphere  which  is  unfavourable 
to  friction  and  worry.  The  newer  and  more  practical 
psychology,  as  taught  by  Professor  William  James,  of 
Harvard,  may  be  recommended,  and  in  closing  this 
chapter  I  take  the  liberty  of  extracting  wholesale  a  para- 
graph from  his  lecture  on  "  The  Gospel  of  Eelaxation." 

"  There  is  no  better  known  or  more  generally  use- 
ful precept  in  the  moral  training  of  youth,  or  in  one's 
personal  self-discipline,  than  that  which  bids  us  pay 
primary  attention  to  what  we  do  and  express,  and  not 
to  care  too  much  for  what  we  feel.  If  we  only  check 
a  cowardly  impulse  in  time,  for  example,  or  if  we  only 
do  not  strike  the  blow  or  rip  out  with  the  complaining 
or  insulting  word  that  we  shall  regret  as  long  as  we  live, 
our  feelings  themselves  will  presently  be  the  calmer  and 
better,   with   no   particular   guidance   from   us  on   their 


CHEERFULNESS  403 

account.  Action  seems  to  follow  feeling,  but  really 
action  and  feeling  go  together,  and  by  regulating  the 
action,  which  is  under  the  more  direct  control  of  the 
will,  we  can  indirectly  regulate  the  feeling  which  is  not. 
"  Thus  the  sovereign  voluntary  path  to  cheerfulness,  if 
our  spontaneous  cheerfulness  be  lost,  is  to  sit  up  cheer- 
fully, to  look  round  cheerfully,  and  to  act  and  speak  as 
if  cheerfulness  were  already  there.  If  such  conduct  does 
not  make  you  soon  feel  cheerful,  nothing  else  on  that 
occasion  can.  So,  to  feel  brave,  act  as  if  we  were  brave, 
use  all  your  will  to  that  end,  and  a  courage  fit  will  very 
likely  replace  the  fit  of  fear.  Again,  in  order  to  feel 
kindly  toward  a  person  to  whom  we  have  been  inimical, 
the  only  way  is  more  or  less  deliberately  to  smile,  to 
make  sympathetic  inquiries,  and  to  force  ourselves  to  say 
genial  things.  One  hearty  laugh  together  will  bring 
enemies  into  a  closer  communion  of  hearts  than  hours 
spent  on  both  sides  in  inward  wrestling  with  the  mental 
demon  of  uncharitable  feeling.  To  wrestle  with  a  bad 
feeling  only  pins  our  attention  on  it,  and  keeps  it  still 
fastened  in  the  mind,  whereas,  if  we  act  as  if  from  some 
better  feeling,  the  old  bad  feeling  soon  folds  its  tent  like 
an  Arab,  and  silently  steals  away." 

Practical  Summary. 

1.  Cheerfulness,  hopefulness  of  mind,  and  placidity  of 
temper  can  be  cultivated  by  practice, 

2.  The  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  body  is  of 
immeasurable  value,  not  only  in  disease,  but  also  in 
health. 

3.  The  expectation  of  the  action  of  medicines  and 
other  remedial  agencies  has  much  to  do  with  the  desired 
result. 


404      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

4.  Emotions  are  either  elevating  or  depressing;  the 
former  having  a  beneficial,  and  the  latter  a  deleterious 
effect  on  the  bodily  functions. 

5.  Fear  alone  may  occasion  suffering  quite  as  great  as 
the  realisation  of  the  evil  which  is  feared. 

6.  Worry  is  allied  to  fear,  and  should  be  distinguished 
from  anxious-mindedness — a  laudable  emotion,  which  only 
degenerates  into  worry  when  it  paralyses  effort. 

7.  The  cure  for  worry  is  action,  i.e.,  compel  the 
attention  to  become  absorbed  insome  other  channel. 

8.  The  will  has  a  mighty  effect  on  the  bodily  functions 
for  good  as  well  as  for  evil. 

9.  Evil  passions,  like  anger,  jealousy,  envy,  lust,  etc., 
poison  the  secretions  and  exert  a  malign  influence  on  the 
body. 

10.  The  exercise  of  love  and  faith  is  positively 
hygienic. 

11.  Good  thoughts  are  of  immense  value  to  their 
possessors,  and  as  thoughts  are  said  to  be  forces  they 
may  possibly  influence  our  neighbours  for  good. 

1 2.  "  Suggestion "  is  an  example  of  the  influence  of 
the  mind  over  the  body,  and  is  a  most  potent  factor  in 
the  amelioration  of  disease,  whether  wielded  by  the 
individual  himself  or  by  an  outsider. 

13.  Hypnotism  is  a  state  of  abnormal  consciousness 
produced  by  suggestion,  and  favourable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  healing  effects.  It  is,  however,  not  without  its 
dangers,  and  should  rarely  be  practised  by  the  physician, 
and  never  by  the  public. 

14.  "Expression  deepens  emotion,"  and  the  repression 
of  expression  helps  to  control  the  emotions. 

15.  If  a  person  be  depressed,  it  is  wise  to  assume  the 
physiognomy  of  joy  or  cheerfulness,  so  that  the  latter 
emotion  may  be  encouraged  to  appear.     Telling  a  funny 


CHEERFULNESS  405 

story  at  meal-times  is  a  valuable  method  of  raising  the 
spirits. 

16.  To  develop  good  habits,  practise  self-hypnotisation 
or  auto-suggestion  in  the  few  minutes  immediately 
preceding  sleep.  This  is  a  valuable  method  of  training 
the  character. 

17.  Eeligious  faith,  as  being  the  best  example  of 
inhibition  by  substitution,  is,  after  all,  the  best  cure  for 
worry. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

KE-GENERATION 

**  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  that  they  should 
do  unto  you.^' 

THE  laws  of  health,  which  have  already  been  examined 
in  detail  by  us  in  the  preceding  chapters,  have 
been  considered  under  ten  headings,  not  with  the  idea 
that  none  others  could  be  formulated,  or  that  they  are  in 
any  way  final,  but  because  they  may  be  regarded  as 
fairly  representative  and  comprehensive.  What  is  quite 
certain  is  that  if  they  be  modified  according  to  constitu- 
tional peculiarities,  interpreted  in  a  sane  and  judicious 
manner,  and  their  tenets  be  practised  from  a  sufficiently 
early  period  of  life,  nothing  but  good  can  accrue  from 
their  observance.  Even  where  disease  has  already 
appeared,  such  a  retracing  of  the  steps  along  the  paths 
of  physiological  rectitude  will  in  many  cases  lead  to 
restoration  of  health  and  rehabilitation  of  the  consti- 
tution. After  all,  however,  they  only  constitute  the 
framework  upon  which  the  superstructure  of  the  body 
is  built — the  best  conditions,  it  may  be,  for  its  perfect 
evolution,  growth,  and  development.  In  other  words,  they 
deal  with  the  environment  or  surroundings  in  which  the 

body  is  placed  by  our  parents. 

40G 


RE-GENERATION  407 

The    precept  which  I   have    selected  as  a  motto  for  The 
this  chapter  in  no  way  abrogates  the  ten  laws  we  have  g^g^f 
already  considered,  but  is  actnally  the  keystone  of  the  Life, 
arch  completing  and  rounding  off  the  whole  life,  and  is 
indeed  "  the  fulfilment  of  the  law."     We  are  given  to 
understand   on  the    highest   authority  that  the   Golden 
Rule  sums  up  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  or  is  in  other 
words  a  perfect  summary  of  man's  duty  (1)  to  himself 
and  (2)  to    his    neighbour.     We    have    devoted    eleven 
chapters  in  the  main  to  the  elucidation  of  the  problem 
of   man's  duty  to  himself ;  we  shall  now  endeavour  in 
this  final  chapter  to  direct  attention  to  the  best  means 
whereby  man  may  perform  his  duty  to  his  neighljour, 
having  more  particularly  in  view  the  highest  embodiment 
of  that  significant  relationship,  namely,  his  offspring. 

To  whatever  heritage  we  may  succeed  by  the  pre- 
science and  forethought  of  our  parents,  nothing  can 
equal,  let  alone  exceed,  the  possession  of  a  healthy  body 
endowed  with  such  potentiality  and  vitality  as  will  carry 
it  safely  through  the  most  adverse  conditions.  This  is 
our  birthright,  and  in  all  probability  has  much  more  to 
do  with  a  healthy  existence  than  even  the  most 
punctilious  attention  to  any  code  of  laws  of  health, 
because  in  spite  of  their  infraction  a  man  with  a  good 
constitution  may  still,  in  some  cases,  go  far  and  work 
wonders  in  his  life.  It  is  a  truism  to  declare  that  a 
man's  body  and  mind  are  moulded  and  framed  by 
heredity  and  environment,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  which 
is  the  more  potent  factor  in  the  production  of  a  healthy 
body  fitted  to  cope  with  all  the  difficulties  of  life. 

Our    endeavour    in    the    preceding    pages    has    been  Heredity 
directed  to  the   elucidation   of    the   best   environmental  Yf"us 

J.  .  -11  IT  ii/nviron- 

conditions,  m  the  hope  that  these  would    have  such  a  ment. 

favourable  reflex  influence  ou  the  body  that  its  perfection 


4o8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

would  ultimately  be  reached  and  so  passed  on  to 
posterity.  The  influence  of  heredity  is,  however,  such 
a  potent  factor  for  good  or  evil  that  it  is  folly  longer 
to  neglect  it,  even  in  its  most  concrete  aspect.  Yet  that 
need  not  and  will  not  interfere  with  the  improvement  of 
environmental  conditions,  an  improvement  which  has 
been  progressive,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  enormous 
reduction  of  the  death-rate  of  London  alone — from  the 
huge  rate  of  80  per  1000,  200  years  ago,  to  the  rate 
of  15  per  1000  to-day.  We  can  safely  leave  further 
advances  in  this  direction  to  the  health  agencies  of  which 
so  many  are  now  in  existence  and  turn  our  attention  to 
the  best  methods  for  passing  on  healthy  bodies  and 
minds  to  our  children.  Nothing  can  possibly  be  lost  by 
prosecuting  such  a  study,  and  nothing  is  gained  by 
shutting  our  eyes  to  the  problem  however  irksome  it 
may  be.  Much  has  been  effected  by  legislation  in 
improving  both  the  public  and  personal  health,  and  the 
time  is  more  than  ripe  for  an  endeavour  to  urge  its 
possibilities  in  the  interest  of  this  new  problem  so 
pregnant  for  the  future  of  our  race.  The  proper  study 
of  mankind  is  man,  but  this  we  have  neglected  for  the 
investigation  of  the  best  means  of  improving  plants  and 
animals,  chiefly  on  economic  grounds ;  and  whatever  the 
advantages,  financial  or  otherwise,  which  have  been 
reaped  in  this  domain,  they  are  of  infinitesimal  moment 
as  compared  with  the  harvest  to  be  obtained  from  an 
endeavour  to  improve  the  human  race. 

To  show  the  valuable  kind  of  information  which  may 
be  derived  by  working  in  this  field,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  fact  that  Pearson,  after  long  investigation, 
discovered  that  in  a  race  whether  of  men  or  animals 
mating  at  random,  striking  the  average  of  a  very  large 
number  of  cases,  the  offspring  will  diverge  from  the  mean 


RE-GENERATION  409 

in  the  same  direction  as  the  diverging  parent  to  some- 
thing like  half  the  amount.  For  example,  where  the 
average  stature  is  5  ft.  8  in.,  the  sons  of  men  of 
6  ft.  would  average  5  ft.  10  in.  in  height,  some  being 
taller  and  others  being  shorter  than  their  father.  In 
other  words,  expressing  this  in  mathematical  language, 
the  coefficient  of  correlation  is  about  -J,  1  being  where 
all  would  grow  as  tall  as  the  father,  0  being  where 
all  would  revert  to  the  average  stature.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  how  the  application  of  knowledge  such  as 
this  would  soon  make  a  beneficial  impression  upon  the 
human  family. 

Another  example  of  the  influence  of  heredity  upon 
the  offspring  is  to  be  found  in  the  study  of  the  effects  of 
alcoholism  in  one  or  both  parents.  It  is  now  known 
that  it  exerts  its  malign  influence  mainly  by  impairing 
the  vitality  of  the  children,  not  necessarily  by  imparting 
to  them  a  desire  for  strong  drink,  but  by  causing  such  a 
decided  deterioration  of  the  stability  of  their  nervous 
systems  as  to  produce  feeble-mindedness  and  epilepsy. 
From  the  former  the  ranks  of  our  criminal  classes  are  very 
largely  recruited,  and  to  a  large  extent  also  they  fill  our 
inebriate  asylums,  so  that  in  this  way  a  vicious  circle 
is  established.  It  will  take  a  great  deal  of  statistical 
research  and  careful  observation  to  clarify  our  views  on 
this  matter,  and  to  relegate  to  its  proper  position  the 
role  played  by  unsoundness  of  mind  in  the  production  of 
inebriety ;  but  it  may  be  said  here  that  the  attitude  of  a 
certain  section  of  the  medical  profession  is  rather  favour- 
able towards  the  view  that  alcoholism  is  more  often 
secondary  to  mental  instability  than  the  latter  is 
dependent  upon  alcoholism.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  the  petty  crime  of  this  country  is  the  direct  conse- 
quence   of     feeble-mindedness,    whilst    much    of    the 


410      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

pauperism    is     occasioned    by    mental    or    physical    in- 
firmity. 

To  illustrate  this  point  the  case  of  the  notorious 
"Jukes"  family  in  the  United  States  of  America  has 
been  frequently  quoted.  Five  daughters  of  the  drunkard 
Max  Jukes,  born  somewhere  about  the  year  1760,  had  a 
total^  of  830  descendants,  10  per  cent,  of  whom  were 
criminals,  20  per  cent,  were  vagabonds,  and  20  per  cent, 
idiots.  A  very  large  proportion  of  them  were  inmates 
of  the  State  prisons,  many  of  the  women  habitually 
consorted  with  criminals,  and  most  of  them  were  paupers 
wholly  or  partially  supported  by  the  State.  From  first 
to  last  it  has  been  estimated  that  this  one  family  caused 
a  direct  loss  of  £260,000  to  the  State,  while  the  indirect 
loss  is  quite  impossible  to  compute. 

A  little  reflection  will    satisfy  us  that    the    benefits 
conferred  by  science  and  progress  are  in  this  connection 
double-edged,  for  our  conquest  of  the  ruder  and  harsher 
forces    of    nature— our  triumph  over  distance,  weather, 
famine,  pestilence,  and  human  savagery,  for  instance—^ 
has  only  enabled  us  to  perpetuate  the  weakly  and  feeble- 
minded, who  repay  us  by  multiplying  at  a  much  more 
rapid  rate  than  the  normal.     On  the  other  hand,  by  this 
attempt  at  altruism  we  have  imposed  a  much  greater 
burden  upon  the   thrifty  classes,  who  have    been  com- 
pelled   to    postpone    marriage    to  a  later    date    and   so 
restrict  the  number  of  their  children.     The  great  attrac- 
tion of  city  life  for  the  more  intelligent  and  enterprising 
youths   of    our   village  population,  and  the    consequent 
inbreeding  and  cross  marriages  of  the  remaining  famihes 
less    well    endowed  with    intellect,  tend    to    perpetuate 
mental    defects,    so    that   some    districts   are    notorious 
for    the    hrge    proportion    of    feeble-minded    in    their 
midst. 


RE-GENERATION  411 

A  truly  disconcerting  feature  of  the  feeble-minded  Fertility  of 
is  their  fertility,  which  is  almost  double  that  of  the  ^^J^J^J^^®- 
general  population,  7 "3  children  being  born  alive  to  the 
former  as  compared  with  4  in  the  average  family. 
Dr.  Tredgold  carefully  investigated  the  family  relation- 
ships of  150  mentally  defective  children  to  ascertain  the 
mental  condition  of  their  brothers  and  sisters,  and  dis- 
covered that  in  the  150  families  1269  children  were 
born,  170  of  whom  were  born  dead,  375  succumbed 
before  reaching  the  age  of  twenty,  245  were  mentally  de- 
ficient, 83  were  diseased,  paupers,  or  criminals,  and  there 
only  remained  the  parents'  testimony  for  the  satisfactory 
mental  and  physical  health  of  the  remaining  456. 

Another  example  of  a  similar  character  is  given  by 
the'  Commissioners  of  Lunacy,  who  stated  that,  in  one 
workhouse  alone,  16  feeble-minded  women  had  produced 
116  children,  and  out  of  one  such  family  of  1 4  only 
4  had  been  able  to  undertake  remunerative  employ- 
ment. Clearly  it  is  our  duty  to  take  some  action  for 
the  prevention  of  such  a  state  of  affairs,  and  the  moral 
responsibility  attaching  to  each  one  who  refuses  to 
co-operate  is  as  great  as  that  of  the  individuals  who  are 
direct  agents  in  propagating  such  offspring.  Attention 
has  been  drawn  in  New  Zealand  recently  to  the  case  of 
a  man  who  had  been  eight  times  in  an  asylum  and  was 
the  father  of  10  children,  each  of  whom  was  a  charge 
on  the  community  and,  therefore,  a  handicap  on  other 
families.  False  modesty  and  an  affectation  of  delicacy 
are  quite  out  of  place  in  the  presence  of  such  evidences 
of  race  deterioration. 

It  is  a  relief  for  a  moment  to  turn  from  such  gloomy 
and  dispiriting  facts  and  to  glance  at  the  other  side  of 
the  shield,  for  the  inheritance  of  ability  is  as  certain  as 
the  inheritance  of  disability.      Galton  was  able  to  show 


412      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

in  1869  that  there  were  only  250  eminent  men  in 
every  1,000,000  of  men  over  the  age  of  fifty — by  which 
age  a  man  should  have  attained  eminence  if  ever — and 
this  proportion  has  since  been  proved  to  be  as  nearly 
accurate  as  may  be  in  such  circumstances.  To  demon- 
strate the  inheritance  of  great  ability,  Galton  selected 
the  286  judges  of  England  between  the  years  1660  and 
1865,  and  was  able  to  prove  clearly  that  the  chance  of 
a  son  of  a  judge  possessing  great  ability  is  506  times 
as  great  as  that  from  a  man  taken  at  random  from  the 
general  population.  Most  of  us  can  recall  families  the 
individual  members  of  which  have  risen  to  great  and 
even  outstanding  eminence,  such  as  the  Kothschilds, 
the  Barings,  the  Darwins,  the  Wedgewoods,  the  Ark- 
wrights,  and  an  examination  of  history  will  reveal  the 
names  of  many  who  have  for  generations  remained 
prominently  before  the  public  mind.  A  conspicuous 
example  of  this  character  is  mentioned  by  Whetham, 
who  states  that  in  the  course  of  the  three  centuries 
between  the  reign  of  Edward  ii.  and  Charles  i.  the  Scrope 
family  produced  in  the  male  line  only  "  two  earls,  and 
twenty  barons,  one  chancellor,  four  Treasurers,  two  Chief 
Justices  of  England,  one  Archbishop  and  two  bishops, 
five  Knights  of  the  Garter,  and  numerous  baronets." 
Galton  mentions  the  permanence  of  ability  maintained 
by  the  intermarriage  of  the  Montagues,  the  Norths,  the 
Sidneys,  and  it  may  be  remembered  that  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  as  Earl  of  Burlington,  is  the  lineal  descendant 
of  one,  Eoger  Boyle,  a  Herefordshire  gentleman  of  good 
birth,  living  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  from  whom 
descended  Bishops,  Archbishops,  Peers,  Earls,  and  many 
men  of  science. 

A  careful  study  of  families  within  our  own  ken  will 
reveal    the    possession    of    characteristics,    physical    and 


RE-GENERATION  413 

moral,  which  continue  to  reappear  in  successive  genera- 
tions, and  a  knowledge  of  the  influence  of  heredity  will 
enable  us  to  take  such  steps  as  will  ensure  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  favourable  features  and  the  elimination  of 
unfavourable  and  malign  characteristics.  The  Registrar- 
General  points  out  that  to  enable  a  population  to  main- 
tain its  numbers  unaltered,  four  children  must  be  born  to 
each  marriage  which  produces  children  at  all.  Of  these 
four,  two  on  the  average  will  either  die  early  or  be  child- 
less, and  the  other  two  will  be  left  to  perpetuate  the  race 
in  place  of  their  parents.  Now,  it  is  perfectly  well  known 
that  certain  large  classes  of  the  people  only  have  three 
children  on  an  average  to  each  fertile  marriage,  i.e.  only 
three-quarters  of  the  births  necessary  to  maintain  their 
numbers  unaltered.  These  belong  to  the  better  classes, 
among  whom  the  death-rate  is  about  15  per  1000  ;  and 
as  the  birth-rate  is  only  three-quarters  of  15,  or 
rather  more  than  11,  i.e.  4  less  than  the  15  needed 
to  replace  the  deaths,  at  the  end  of  the  year  only 
996  will  remain  out  of  the  1000,  at  the  end  of  the 
century  only  687,  and  at  the  end  of  two  centuries 
only  472.  Amongst  the  lower  classes,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  birth-rate  is  quite  three  times  as  great, 
or  33  per  1000,  and  the  death-rate  is  not  more 
than  20  per  1000,  so  that  there  are  each  year  13 
more  than  are  necessary  to  balance  the  loss  by  death, 
or  1013  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  3600  at  the  end 
of  a  century,  and  actually  13,000  at  the  end  of  two 
centuries.  Thus,  if  the  members  of  these  two  classes 
had  originally  been  equal  in  numbers,  at  the  end  of  a 
century  the  less  prolific  stock  would  only  be  as  1  to 
6,  and  at  the  end  of  two  centuries  as  1  to  30.  Diminu- 

A  knowledge  of  these  facts  is  of  great  importance  in  ^^^if ^  *^® 
attempting  an  explanation  of    the  progress  of  physical  Rate. 


414      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

deterioration,  because  the  children  of  the  better  classes 
are  much  stronger,  healthier,  and  larger  than  those  of  the 
lower  classes,  and,  if  racial  decay  is  to  cease,  an  examina- 
tion into  this  anomalous  position  must  be  instituted. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  there  is  no  appreciable 
diminution  of  the  natural  potential  fertility  of  the  nation. 
Classes  which  are  under  the  influence  of  deep  religious 
conviction  or  authority,  as  well  as  others  which  are  too 
unsophisticated  to  make  any  attempt  to  interfere  with 
the  course  of  nature,  are  still  noted  for  the  large  size 
of  their  families. 

It  is,  of  course,  possible,  as  has  been  proved  by  Dr. 
Chalmers  Watson,  that  over-feeding  and  luxurious  habits 
may  in  some  small  measure  be  acting  as  a  handicap  on 
the  birth-rate,  but  their  potentiality  is  so  insignificant 
as  to  be  almost  negligible.  We  are  forced  to  the  con- 
clusion that  practically  the  sole  cause  of  the  diminished 
birth-rate  in  the  middle  and  upper  classes  is  voluntary 
restriction.  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  full  meaning  of  that  term.  It  is  sufficient 
to  remark  that  its  practice  is  an  application  of  selfish- 
ness, for  which  the  penalty  is  manifestly  ultimate  extinc- 
tion. Much  may  be  done,  by  improving  the  environment 
of  the  lower  classes,  to  diminish  and  perhaps  extinguish 
physical  deterioration ;  but  until  the  middle  and  upper 
classes  learn  to  deny  themselves  and  sacrifice  their  own 
personal  desires  and  fleeting  pleasures  on  the  altar  of 
patriotism  and  devotion  to  the  race,  it  is  impossible  to 
expect  that  the  British  people  can  be  in  a  position  to 
discharge  their  duty  or  fulfil  their  highest  function  in 
the  evolution  of  mankind. 
quked°'  '^^  is  held  by  many  that  acquired  characters,  that  is 

Characters  those  produced   by  the   body  adapting   itself  to  its  en- 
tary  ?  '      vironment,  are  not  capable  of  transmission  ;  but,  what- 


RE-GENERATION  415 

ever  truth  there  may  be  in  this  statement,  it  is  a 
certainty  that  you  can  watch  the  acquirement  of  such 
characteristics  by  a  study  of  different  nations.  White 
people  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  are  much  more 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  malaria  than  the  negro  popula- 
tion, while  the  children  of  the  latter  die  from  this 
malady  much  more  rapidly  than  their  parents.  On  the 
other  hand,  white  children  cannot  be  reared  at  all,  so 
rapidly  do  they  succumb  to  the  malarial  miasma. 

We  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  yet  acquired  an  im- 
munity from  measles  in  this  country,  but  the  disease 
when  it  occurs,  at  least  in  children,  is  almost  always 
very  mild.  A  very  different  state  of  affairs,  however, 
exists  in  the  Polynesian  Islands  and  elsewhere,  where 
the  disease  attacks  all  and  sundry  and  is  of  a  highly 
fatal  character.  What  are  looked  upon  as  trivial  ailments, 
such  as  colds,  are  only  so  because  we  have  acquired  a 
comparative  immunity  to  them.  In  communities  where 
this  protection  has  not  been  acquired,  such  as  St.  Kilda, 
a  common  cold  is  a  very  virulent  disorder,  and  the  bi- 
ennial advent  of  a  ship  from  the  mainland  is  always 
attended  by  a  severe  attack  of  influenza  cold,  the  whole 
population  being  affected.  Immunity  to  acute  nasal 
catarrh  is  evidently  very  short  lived,  because  Nansen 
and  other  explorers  on  their  return  from  the  Arctic 
regions  have  invariably  been  attacked  by  extremely 
severe,  acute  nasal  catarrh. 

Obviously  this  condition  of  immunity  to  disease  is 
acquired  by  a  long  process  of  selection.  When  first 
attacked  by  the  disease  individuals  of  course  varied  in 
their  resistance  to  it,  the  most  susceptible  succumbing 
and  the  most  resistant  surviving  and  producing  off- 
spring. These  children  inherited  the  character  of  their 
parents,  all  of  them  being  slightly  more  resistant  to  the 
27 


4i6      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 


The  Influ- 
ence of 
Heredity 
on  Tuber- 
culosis. 


disease,  but  the  weak  ones  succumbing  as  before.  After 
a  term,  however,  certainly  lasting  through  many  genera- 
tions the  resistance  gradually  increases,  and  although  not 
complete  is  very  much  magnified,  so  that  the  tendency 
for  infectious  diseases  is  to  become  less  and  less  virulent 
in  their  character.  This  has  been  extremely  well 
illustrated  by  Karl  Pearson  in  his  pamphlet  on  The 
Fight  against  Tuberculosis  and  the  Death-Bate  from  Phthisis. 
It  is  well  known  that  consumption  is  always  due  to  in- 
fection, although  the  tendency  appears  to  run  in  families. 
Where,  for  instance,  two  undoubted  cases  of  consump- 
tion occur  in  near  relatives  of  an  applicant  for  life 
assurance,  this  is  regarded  as  an  absolute  bar  to  his 
acceptance. 

Pearson  institutes  a  comparison  between  the  general 
death-rate  per  1000  of  England  and  Wales  during  the 
last  seventy-five  years,  and  the  death-rate  from  phthisis 
for  practically  the  same  period,  and  illustrates  the  results 
by  a  series  of  striking  diagrams.  The  remarkable  facts 
are  noted  that,  whilst  the  general  death-rate  has  gradu- 
ally diminished — at  first  very  slowly,  but  subsequently,  as 
the  knowledge  of  disease  advanced  and  the  application  of 
hygienic  methods  became  more  common,  at  a  much  more 
rapid  rate,  until  in  the  last  twenty  years  a  continuous 
and  decided  decrease  has  become  apparent — the  fall  in 
the  death-rate  from  phthisis  began  long  before  the  fall 
in  the  general  death-rate  was  obvious.  Yet  in  the  last 
twenty  years,  when  medical  science  has  advanced  by 
leaps  and  bounds,  the  tubercle  bacillus  has  been  isolated, 
sanatoria  established,  and  new  methods  of  treatment 
devised,  the  decrease  in  the  death-rate  from  phthisis 
has  almost  ceased,  and  it  appears  quite  probable  that 
no  further  diminution  may  take  place.  The  reason  he 
advances   for  this  almost  anomalous  state  of    affairs   is 


RE-GENERATION  417 

that  tuberculosis  is  so  tremendously  infectious  that 
practically  all  the  artisan  classes  attending  public  schools 
as  children,  or  as  adults  working  in  factories,  and  travel- 
ing in  public  conveyances,  have  become  affected  by  it, 
and  that  as  the  death-rate  from  phthisis  is  only  about 
8  per  cent,  of  the  total  death  -  rate,  the  bulk  of  the 
population  have  sufficient  resistive  power  to  survive  the 
attack  and  die  from  other  causes. 

In  other  words,  by  a  process  of  natural  selection  the 
population  has  gradually  acquired  an  immunity  to 
tuberculosis,  and  the  fall  in  the  death-rate,  which 
occurred  in  spite  of  bad  housing,  lack  of  knowledge  of 
the  disease  and  its  treatment,  has  become  sensibly 
retarded  since  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  the  open- 
air  treatment,  the  large  increase  of  sanatoria  and  the 
widespread  use  of  tuberculin — the  most  up-to-date 
antidote  to  the  specific  virus — because  the  virulence 
of  the  disease  has  been  gradually  reduced  to  its  minimum 
limits.  In  races  where  the  disease  has  only  been  com- 
paratively recently  introduced,  and  time  has  not  been 
allowed  for  selection,  isolated  individuals  form  a  suitable 
soil  for  the  growth  and  development  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus  in  conditions  in  which  even  the  most  susceptible 
of  individuals  amongst  protected  races,  such  as  those 
in  northern  Europe,  would  be  able  either  to  resist  its 
inroads  or  to  eliminate  it  after  it  had  succeeded  in 
establishing  itself. 

The  characters  of  an  individual  may  be  inborn,  most 
of  these  being  derived  by  inheritance  from  one  or  both 
parents  with  possible  slight  variations,  or  acquired 
before  or  after  birth,  although  in  either  case  these  may 
really  be  dependent  upon  a  potentiality  inherited  from 
the  parents.  Galton's  theory  of  heredity  surmised  that 
the    individual    derived    half    of    his    total    heritasje    of 


41 8      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

character  from  the  immediate  parents,  one-quarter  from 
the  grandparents,  one-eighth  from  the  great-grandparents, 
and  so  on,  but  this  is  too  far-fetched  and  untrue,  because 
manifestly  the  great  bulk  of  the  character  of  the  in- 
dividual has  been  possessed  by  his  ancestors  for  probably 
thousands  of  generations. 

The  theory  of  heredity  which  holds  the  field  to-day 
owes  its  origin  to  Gregor  Johann  Mendel,  Abbot  of  Bronn 
in  Austria,  and  was  enunciated  by  him  in  a  comparatively 
obscure  journal  in  1865,  completely  lost  sight  of  till 
about  ten  years  ago,  and  then  "  rediscovered "  by  some 
botanists.  Its  fundamental  principle  consists  in  the 
fact  that  whatever  exists  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  the 
body  will  reappear  in  definite  proportions  and  ratio  in 
its  successors.  Mendel's  first  experiments  dealt  with 
the  manner  in  which  certain  definite  characters  in 
garden  peas  were  transmitted  when  varieties  were  crossed. 
He  discovered  that  the  characters  were  inherited  in  a 
regular  manner.  As  an  illustration  let  us  take  one  pair 
of  characters,  tallness  and  shortness.  When  a  tall  pea 
was  crossed  with  a  short  pea  all  the  plants  produced 
from  the  seeds  of  this  first  cross  were  tall.  It  invariably 
happens  that  when  a  plant  bearing  one  of  a  pair  of 
characters  is  crossed  with  one  bearing  the  other  character, 
one  character  always  appears  in  the  first  generation  or 
cross  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other.  Mendel  called  this 
the  dominant  character  in  opposition  to  the  other  which 
he  named  recessive.  In  the  second  generation  produced 
by  the  self-fertihsation  of  these  hybrids,  out  of  every 
four,  three  presented  the  dominant  character  (in  the  case 
under  consideration,  tallness),  and  one  showed  the  recessive 
character,  namely,  dwarfness,  this  recessive  descendant 
always  breeding  true  for  all  time,  always  producing 
recessive  or  dwarf  plants  and  never  any  dominants  or 


RE-GENERATION  419 

tall  plants.  The  three  dominants  of  this  second  genera- 
tion, however,  behaved  in  a  different,  although  always 
precisely  similar,  manner,  one  always  breeding  true  and 
therefore  being  tall,  but  the  other  two  apparently 
possessing  mixed  characters  and  producing  one  pure 
dominant,  one  pure  recessive  and  two  mixed  dominants. 

No  good  purpose  would  be  served  by  entering  into 
minute  details  on  this  subject,  as  they  can  be  found  in 
any  book  on  heredity,  but  the  principle  of  Mendelism 
may  be  said  to  be  that  in  the  process  of  crossing,  any 
quality  which  is  in  either  of  the  parents  may  reappear 
in  a  subsequent  generation.  Careful  study  of  dominance 
and  recessiveness  in  many  plants  and  animals  shows  that 
in  sweet-peas  and  stocks  coloured  flowers  are  dominant, 
and  whites  recessive  ;  in  mice  a  coloured  coat  is  dominant, 
an  albino  coat  recessive ;  the  same  applies  to  rabbits, 
while  as  regards  fur  an  angora  is  dominant,  and  short 
fur  recessive.  A  particularly  interesting  illustration  of 
the  principle  is  that  of  blue  Andalusian  fowls,  which 
never  breed  true,  but  always  throw  off  black  and  white 
birds.  The  blues  are  really  a  cross  between  the  black 
and  white  forms,  and  when  mated  always  produce  one- 
quarter  black,  one-quarter  white,  and  one-half  blue  or 
mixed,  the  black  and  white  respectively  always  breeding 
true,  while  the  blue  repeat  the  performance  of  their 
parents.  The  practical  value  of  the  theory  is  well 
exemplified  by  the  crossing  of  a  large  cropping  English 
wheat  deficient  in  "  strength "  with  a  small  cropping 
Canadian  wheat  notable  for  its  '"  strength,"  an  immense 
improvement  manifesting  itself,  with  the  result  that  the 
first  generation  is  all  "  strong." 

However  simple  the  process  may  be  in  plants  and 
animals,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  trace  in  man  because 
of   the    complexity   of    his    characters.     To   obtain   any 


420      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

success  it  is  essential  to  select  a  simple  character  like 
the  colour  of  the  eyes  and  follow  it  out  carefully.  When 
there  is  a  large  quantity  of  pigment  in  the  eyes,  some 
shade  of  brown  or  black  will  appear,  and  this  is  a 
dominant  character,  just  as  greys  and  blues,  which 
display  little  pigment,  are  recessive.  If  a  person  with 
a  pure  brown  iris  marries  one  with  a  pure  grey,  all  the 
children  will  necessarily  have  brown  pigment  in  their 
eyes,  resembling  the  dominant  parent.  If  one  of  these 
children  marry  a  pure-bred  grey-eyed  person  one-half 
of  the  offspring  will  be  brown-eyed,  but  not  stable  in  the 
transmission  of  that  character,  and  one-half  grey-eyed 
recessives,  i.e.  they  have  lost  the  power  of  reproducing 
children  with  brown  tints  in  their  iris  so  long  as  they 
confine  their  selection  of  a  mate  to  grey-eyed  persons. 

Whilst  it  is  doubtful  whether  Mendelian  principles 
can  be  applied  to  disease  generally,  it  is  perfectly  certain 
that  many  diseases  and  malformations  appear  to  depend 
upon  definite  pathological  conditions  and  to  descend  as 
Mendelian  dominants.  A  notable  instance  of  this  is 
brachydactyly,  which  means  that  the  fingers  are  shortened, 
possessing  only  one  joint  instead  of  two.  This  condition 
never  arises  cle  novo,  but  is  always  dependent  on  one  or 
other  of  the  parents  possessing  the  deformity. 

The  disease  known  as  haemophilia,  the  subjects  of 
which  are  popularly  called  "  bleeders,"  betrays  similar 
characteristics.  In  this  the  transmission  is  through  the 
females,  but  it  usually  attacks  the  males,  Assuming 
that  a  family  was  composed  of  three  boys  and  three 
girls,  the  latter  would  evince  no  sign  of  it,  whilst  the 
former  might  die  of  it.  At  the  same  time  the  disease 
must  be  latent  in  the  girls,  because,  even  although  they 
marry  perfectly  healthy  men,  the  sons  are  again  afflicted 
and  may  die  of  it.     The  disease  is  evidently  dominant 


RE-GENERATION  421 

in  the  males.  A  very  similar  state  of  affairs  exists  in 
connection  with  the  visionary  defect  termed  nyctalopia 
or  night-blindness,  so  called  because  its  subjects  are 
unable  to  see  in  a  faint  light.  It  likewise  affects  men 
more  than  women,  and  can  only  be  introduced  by  affected 
men,  although  it  can  be  passively  transmitted  by  unaffected 
women.  Women  who  are  apparently  normal,  and  the 
sisters  of  affected  men,  may  transmit  it  to  some  of  their 
sons,  but  only  if  they  marry  a  "  nighf-blind "  man  can 
they  transmit  it  to  their  daughters. 

Colour-blindness  again  occurs  more  frequently  in  the 
male  sex,  and  is  usually  transmitted  from  grandfather  to 
grandson,  intermediate  members,  both  male  and  female, 
escaping.  Several  brothers  may  be  afflicted  with  the 
same  variety,  the  sisters  almost  always  escaping.  Many 
other  diseases  of  the  eye  are  communicable  from  parent 
to  child.  We  have  only  to  glance  at  ISTettleship's  record 
of  three  family  trees  affected  with  congenital  cataract, 
where,  out  of  a  total  of  fifty-five  children,  no  less  than 
twenty-six  were  born  with  the  disease. 

A  tendency  to  gout  is  undoubtedly  capable  of  being 
inherited,  and  this  is  not  infrequently  transmitted  through 
the  female  line,  although  specially  manifested  in  the 
male.  It  is  quite  fair  to  say  there  is  an  arthritic 
diathesis,  i.e.  a  tendency  to  the  deposition  of  foreign 
material  in  many  parts  of  the  body,  especially  the  joints, 
from  which  arise  gout,  rheumatism,  cerebral  hemorrhage, 
heart  disease,  and  neuroses  of  various  kinds,  such  as 
muco-membranous  colitis,  etc.  As  has  already  been 
mentioned,  alcoholism  is  closely  associated  with  other 
neuropathic  characteristics,  such  as  imbecility,  insanity, 
epilepsy,  paralysis,  crime,  etc.  Hay-fever  in  many  cases 
is  clearly  inherited,  no  fewer  than  35  per  cent,  of  cases 
showing  well-marked  evidence  of  transmission  from  the 


422      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

parents.  In  the  same  category  is  asthma,  another 
neurotic  ailment,  and  quite  as  many  as  67  per  cent,  of 
cases  of  convulsions  can  be  traced  to  heredity. 

Fifty  per  cent,  of  all  cases  of  obesity  are  hereditary, 
and  such  cases  manifest  the  disposition  very  early  in  life 
more  commonly  in  female  than  male  children.  It  is 
no  uncommon  thing  to  find  a  whole  family  affected,  and 
in  such  cases  it  appears  more  usually  later  in  life. 
These  are  the  most  difficult  cases  to  treat,  acquired 
obesity  being  much  more  amenable  to  treatment. 

Some  diseases  are  so  eminently  due  to  heredity  that 
they  are  so  entitled,  e.g.  hereditary  ataxy,  a  family  disease 
occurring  in  the  first  and  second  decades  of  life,  having 
as  its    leading    features  a  peculiar  stamping  gait,  con- 
tinual   oscillation    of    the    eyeballs,   deformities    of    the 
spine  and  feet,  and  other  nervous  symptoms.     Lockjaw 
in  the  newly  born,  commonly  called  trismus  neonatorum, 
an  ailment  of  extreme  frequency  in  the  island  of    St. 
Kilda,  is  in  all  probability  transmitted  from  parent  to 
children.     Although  insanity  and  hysteria  may  not  be 
obviously  of  hereditary  origin,  there  can  be    no  doubt 
that    these    diseases  occur    in  certain  families  who  are 
characterised  by  the  possession  of  an  unstable  equilibrium. 
One    cannot    leave   the  subject    of    the    influence    of 
heredity  on  the  transmission  of    disease  without  refer- 
ring to  deafness.     In  England  quite  50  per  cent,  of  the 
cases  of  deaf-mutism  are  congenital,  and  in  some  parts 
of  America  as  many  as   70  per  cent,  can  be  so  traced. 
The  congenitally  deaf  and  those  related  to  them  should 
never  marry.     At  an  inquest  on  a  male  deaf-mute  (con- 
genital) aged  fifty-nine,  in  1896,  it  was  stated  that  the 
relatives  could  not  identify  the  body,  as  the  wife  and 
sister  were  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb,  and  the  four  children 
were  deaf  and  dumb. 


RE-GENERATION  423 

The  mention  of  deaf -mutism  introduces  us  to  the  very  The  Inad- 
important  question  of  consanguinity  in  marriage,  more  of^JjiVt/ 
esijecially  in  connection  with  the  intermarriage  of  first  Cousin 
cousins.     It  may  be  stated  briefly  that  such  marriages  ° 

emphasise  in  the  offspring  whatever  defects  are  character- 
istic of  the  family,  and  there  is  no  chance  of  them  being 
neutrahsed  or  dying  out,  as  may  be  the  case  where  no 
relationship  exists.  Given  perfectly  healthy  cousins 
who  possess  no  hereditary  tendency  to  disease  whatever, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  children  may  be  sound ;  but, 
as  these  ideal  conditions  practically  never  exist,  marriage 
between  first  cousins  is  inadvisable.  The  whole  problem 
has  been  very  carefully  worked  out  by  Miss  Elderton,  of 
the  Galton  Laboratory  for  National  Eugenics,  and  her 
conclusions  are  of  the  greatest  interest  and  import.  She 
points  out  that  the  peculiarity  of  cousin  marriages  lies  in 
the  appearance  of  defects  in  the  offspring  of  apparently 
normal  cousins,  and  the  problem  she  set  herself  to  solve 
was  whether  this  was  a  real  peculiarity  or  only  super- 
ficial because  of  the  concentration  of  our  attention  on 
cousins  who  produce  defective  offspring.  Assuming  the 
correctness  of  the  Mendelian  theory,  the  possession 
of  an  individual  detrimental  character  which  in 
primitive  communities  would  constitute  a  hindrance  to 
marriage,  this  would  be  recessive.  Now,  supposing  a 
population  of  dominants,  i.e.  normal  people,  all  mating 
with  recessives,  in  all  the  offspring  the  detrimental 
character  would  be  latent.  The  next  generation  ob- 
tained by  the  mating  of  these  children,  in  whom  the 
detrimental  character  is  latent,  with  members  of  the 
population  of  a  dominant  character  would  result  in  a 
stock  of  equal  numbers  of  dominants  without  the 
detrimental  character  and  of  apparent  dominants  who 
have    the    detrimental    character    latent.     Now,    if   the 


424      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

50  per  cent,  who  have  the  latent  detrimental  character 
were  to  mate  with  their  first  cousins  of  the  same  kind 
the  marriage  of  these  cousins  would  have  as  harmful  a 
result  as  a  brother-sister  marriage  of  the  same  generation. 
In  each  case  we  should  get  25  per  cent,  of  the  progeny 
hale,  25  per  cent,  with  the  detrimental  character  patent, 
and  50  per  cent,  with  the  detrimental  character  latent. 

It,  therefore,  follows  that  it  would  be  as  detrimental 
for  some  cousins  to  marry  as  for  all  brothers  and  sisters, 
as  the  greater  the  resemblance  of  the  stock  the  worse 
the  result.  A  most  careful  investigation  amongst  5800 
cousins  enabled  Miss  Elderton  to  verify  the  belief  that 
the  child  mortality  is  greater  amongst  the  offspring  of 
cousin  marriage  than  amongst  the  general  population, 
and  that  albinism,  deaf-mutism,  and  defective  intellect  are 
infinitely  greater  amongst  such  children  than  amongst 
the  general  population.  Indeed,  even  in  cases  where  the 
parents  are  normal  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  these 
diseases  are  greater,  and  where  one  parent  alone  is 
affected  such  a  marriage  more  than  doubles  the  number 
of  affected  children.  There  is  a  very  large  number  of 
latent  defects  in  the  community  which  only  become 
apparent  when  intensified  by  the  coincidence  of  the  same 
latent  defect  in  both  parents,  and  in  some  conditions  in 
cousins  its  appearance  is  from  200  to  800  times  more 
likely  than  amongst  the  general  population.  No  one  dare 
boast  of  a  clean  stock  because  his  direct  ancestors  are  free : 
all  the  collateral  branches,  even  six  times  removed,  must 
be  taken  into  account.  The  percentage  of  cousin  marriages 
is  4-7  amongst  the  middle  classes,  though  less  among 
Jews,  Eoman  Catholics,  and  the  lower  classes,  and  ob- 
servers have  noted  that  every  tenth  case  of  deafness  is 
the  product  of  such  a  marriage. 

Lombroso  estimates  tliat  indirectly  almost  all  forms 


RE-GENERATION  425 

of  chronic  constitutional  diseases,  especially  those  of  a 
nervous  character — chorea,  sciatica,  hysteria,  insanity, 
and  above  all  epilepsy — may  give  rise  to  criminality  in 
the  descendants.  This  statement  likewise  applies  to 
arthritis  and  gout,  but  more  especially  to  alcoholism. 
He  calculates  that  20  per  cent,  of  all  Italian  criminals 
and  3  3  per  cent,  of  all  dangerous  criminals  are  descended 
from  inebriate  families.  The  effects  of  direct  heredity 
are  still  worse,  20  per  cent,  of  juvenile  offenders  belong- 
ing to  families  of  doubtful  reputation  and  26  per  cent, 
to  those  whose  reputation  is  thoroughly  bad. 

Havelock  Ellis  speaks  of  "  congenital  criminals."  It  Criminal 
is  almost  possible  to  pick  out  criminals  by  their  physical  [^^[^1^  ^^' 
configuration  alone.  They  incline  to  repeat  the  habits  of 
savages,  e.g.  tattooing,  they  are  hardly  capable  of  suffering 
pain  ("  analgesic "),  and  their  senses  of  touch,  hearing, 
and  sight  are  deficient.  They  are  very  agile  and  full  of 
muscular  energy,  but  have  diminished  vasomotor  reflexes, 
e.g.  they  cannot  blush.  Pleasure,  however,  and  fear 
affect  them  little,  and  they  have  no  moral  sense,  no  re- 
morse, no  self-control,  and  no  sense  of  responsibility. 
They  are  emotional,  flighty,  treacherous,  cruel,  lazy,  in- 
different to  the  pain  and  sufferings  of  others.  When  we 
begin  to  realise  that  a  large  proportion  of  criminals  are 
born  and  not  made,  and  that  indeed  they  are  in  large 
measure  irresponsible  for  their  actions,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  decide  that  the  hospital  and  not  the  prison  is 
the  most  appropriate  place  in  which  to  detain  them. 
Methods  of  vindictive  punishment  are  fast  disappearing, 
and  are  being  replaced  by  systems  having  certainly  a 
corrective  but  in  the  main  constructive  and  reclamatory 
effect.  "  There  is  a  destiny  made  for  man  by  his 
ancestors,  and  no  one  can  elude,  were  he  able  to  attempt 
it,  the  tyranny  of  his  organisation."     These  words  of  Dr. 


426      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Maudsley's  are  as  true  to-day  as  when  they  were  written, 
but  with  this  difference  that,  having  recognised  the 
limitations  set  by  the  tyrant,  we  are  in  an  infinitely 
better  position  to  break  the  power  of  his  might. 

With  such  a  record  of  facts  it  would  be  criminal  for 
us  to  stand  aside  and  listlessly  fold  our  hands  in  callous 
indifference.  It  is  our  imperative  duty  to  take  the  most 
vigorous  action  in  order  that  the  evil  wrought  by  our 
ignorance,  negligence,  or  heedlessness  may  be  eradicated 
at  the  earliest  moment  and  in  the  safest  manner  possible, 
to  conserve  the  rights  of  the  individual  and  of  the  State. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  if  a  man  desires  a  long  life 
he  should  take  the  precaution  to  "  select  his  parents " 
and  even  his  grandparents ;  but  as  this  is  a  physical 
impossi])ility,  it  is  incumbent  upon  one  who  hopes  to 
become  an  ancestor  to  exercise  a  sufficient  amount  of 
forethought  to  justify  his  descendants  in  revering  his 
memory  for  the  sound  constitutions  he  has  passed  on  to 
them. 

First,  then,  it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  weak-minded, 
the  diseased,  the  "  unfit  "  in  the  eugenic  sense  of  the 
term  must  be  segregated,  not  only  for  their  own  sakes 
so  that  they  may  make  the  most  of  their  lives,  but  for 
the  sake  of  the  welfare  of  the  race.  For  this  purpose 
we  look  to  the  enactment  of  such  legislation  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  compulsory  removal  of  those  who  are 
at  present  an  incubus  to  society  into  such  conditions  as 
may  enable  them  to  live  their  lives  in  peace  and  comfort, 
giving  such  service  as  they  are  capable  of  and  receiving 
such  reward  as  is  their  due.  But  the  isolation  must  be 
complete  and  of  such  a  character  that  the  question  of 
participating  in  the  perpetuation  of  the  race  can  never 
enter  into  their  lives.  We  must  ensure  that  only  those 
who  are  capable,  and  it  might  be  safer  to  say  only  those 


RE-GENERATION  427 

who  have  received  a  medical  certificate  of  good  health, 
should  be  free  to  take  part  in  such  a  momentous  and 
vital  function. 

This  is  really  what  is  involved  in  the  new  science  of  The 

^  1  •   1      •  j-T,       •    1  Science  of 

Eugenics,  or  the  mfluences  which  mi  prove  the  inborn  E^geiucs. 
qualities  of  a  race;  it  may  be  interpreted  in  plain 
language  as  the  science  dealing  with  the  begetting  of 
healthy  children.  Society  has  the  right  to  demand 
that  preventive  measures  should  be  instituted  at  least 
up  to  this  point,  although  public  opinion  is  hardly  yet 
sufficiently  advanced  to  enable  us  to  impose  more  severe 
restrictions  (such,  e.g.,  as  those  involving  the  mutilation  of 
the  individual).  But  doubtless  the  time  will  soon  be  ripe 
when  such  a  demand  will  be  made. 

Our  present  lackadaisical  attitude  to  the  question  we 
evidently  owe  to  a  too  sentimental  conception  of 
humanitarianism,  and  it  constitutes  a  scarcely  warrant- 
able interference  with  Nature's  methods  for  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  unfit.  We  have  ample  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  ancients  were  not  actuated  by  any  such 
irresponsible  philanthropy,  and  even  in  fairly  recent 
times  in  our  own  country  the  barbarous  and  indefensible 
custom  of  putting  weakly  and  deformed  children  to 
death  by  "exposure" — as  Plato  recommended — was 
quite  common.  Mackenzie,  the  historian  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  attributes  the  remarkably  fine  physique  of 
the  islanders  of  Lewis  and  the  almost  total  absence  of 
consumption  amongst  the  inhabitants  to  the  existence 
of  this  practical  provision  for  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 
Doubtless  the  fact  that  Stornoway,  the  capital  of  the 
island,  has  been  a  fertile  mother  of  intellectual  giants  is 
in  some  measure  associated  with  this  rough-and-ready 
though  heartless  method  of  eliminating  the  unfit. 

It    is    even    of    greater    moment,    however,    that   we 


428      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

should  give  heed  to  the  healthy,  teaching  them  the  best 
methods    of    preserving  their  manhood    and  vigour  and 
encouraging  them  in  their  efforts  to  prevent  the  inroads 
of  disease.     Life  is  a  constant  struggle,  a  warfare  being 
incessantly  waged  in  which  only  the  fittest  survive.     It 
behoves  us,  therefore,  to  see  that  those  with  the  seeds  of 
disease,    degeneration,    or    decay    already    implanted    in 
their   systems    should  be  so    disposed  of    that  they  are 
incapable  of  further  contributing  to  the  deterioration  of 
those    engaged    or    likely  to    be    engaged  in  the   strife. 
But    as    the    ranks    of    the    unfit    are   constantly  being 
recruited  from  those  of  the  healthy  and  strong,  we  must 
take   measures  to  reinforce  the   health  and  strength  of 
those  engaged  in  the  forefront  of  the  battle,  so  that  as 
far  as   possible    they  may  be   rendered  insusceptible  to 
the  inroads  of  disease. 
aBdX'*^      .^^^^   ^   condition  of  body  is  termed   immunity,  and 
Laws  of     this  may  either  be  natural  or  acquired.     It  is  a  well- 
Health,      known  fact  that  the  lower  animals  are  immune  to  certain 
diseases  which    attack    man,  that   certain    families    and 
types   of  constitution   show   marked  resistance   to   some 
diseases,  and  that  even  the  individuals  of  a  family  may 
exhibit  varying  degrees  of  resistance  and  susceptibility. 
All  these  are  examples  of  natural  immunity  which  it  is 
clear  is  largely  an  inherited  condition  and  is  possessed 
by  the  individual  in  virtue  of  his  being  a  member  of  a 
certain  race,  species,  or  family.     Acquired  immunity  is 
that  which  is  produced  by  recovery  from  an  attack  of 
certain  usually  infectious  diseases,  and  is  due   to   some 
change  induced  by  the  disease  in  the  patient's  body.     It 
is  quite  clearly  recognised  that  there  are  varying  degrees 
of  immunity,  and  in  this  connection  conditions  of  local 
or  general  diminished  vitality  play  an  important  part  in 
increasing  the  susceptibility.     Although  evidence  is  fast 


RE-GENERATION  429 

being  accumulated,  we  are  yet  unaware  of  all  the  factors 
involved  in  the  process,  but  we  are  sufficiently  alive  to 
the  fact  that  natural  immunity  may  be  fortified  by 
careful  attention  to  the  laws  of  health. 

There  can  be  no  gainsaying  the  fact  that  infraction 
of  any  of  the  ten  laws  of  health  set  forth  in  this  book 
will  most  assuredly  tend  to  the  diminution  of  natural 
immunity,  and  in  proportion  as  they  are  ignored  or 
wilfully  broken  will  be  the  rapidity  of  the  descent  of 
the  healthy  into  the  ranks  of  the  unfit.  Look  the  facts 
fairly  in  the  face  and  judge  whether  this  be  the  case  or 
not.  Take  the  laws  one  by  one  and  give  them  even  the 
most  superficial  examination.  It  has  been  clinically  and 
experimentally  established  that  starvation  reduces  the 
resistance  to  disease  just  as  an  erroneous  selection  of, 
or  an  excessive  indulgence  in,  food  increases  the 
tendency  to  it.  The  use  of  alcohol  even  in  moderate 
quantities  and  the  abuse  of  tea  and  coffee  are  weU- 
known  factors  in  the  production  of  illness.  Indolence 
induces  obesity,  while  overwork  and  lack  of  rest  are 
mainly  responsible  for  the  onset  of  neurasthenia. 
The  evils  of  foul  air  are  too  familiar  to  need  description, 
and  many  cases  of  heart  disease  and  aneurism  owe  their 
origin  to  immoderate  athleticism.  Filth  engenders  such 
diseases  as  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  and  plague,  and,  by 
breeding  mosquitoes,  makes  yellow  fever  and  malaria 
possible.  "  Pneumonia  blouses "  and  other  fashionable 
attire  invite  chills  and  lay  the  seeds  of  consumption. 
Sensual  indulgence  of  all  kinds  saps  the  vital  energies, 
and,  like  depression  of  spirits  or  melancholy,  prepares  the 
soil  for  the  growth  of  pathogenic  or  disease-producing 
organisms. 

It  does  not  require  much  reflection,  therefore,  to 
understand  how  careful  observance  of  the  laws  of  health 


430      THE  LAWS  OF  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

tends  to  invigorate  the  body  and  increase  the  natural 
immunity  to  disease — an  immunity  which  may  be 
passed  on  to  our  ofispring  and  so  tend  to  the  growth  of 
a  strong  and  vigorous  race.  Such  facts  as  these  ought 
to  be  taught  in  our  elementary  schools.  There  is  a 
positive  as  well  as  a  negative  side  to  physical  and 
moral  righteousness,  and  it  is  high  time  to  open  our 
eyes  to  the  existence  of  evils  which  threaten  us  with 
disaster,  if  not  with  extinction.  Physical  deterioration 
will  cease  so  soon  as  each  individual  determines  to  do 
his  duty  to  himself  and  his  country,  and  personal 
and  national  salvation  are  intimately  associated  with 
obedience  to  the  Laws  of  Life  and  Health. 

^  Consult  Whetham's  The  Family  cmd  the  Naiio'iu 


TXDEX 


Abdominal  type  of  breathing,  193. 
Abeniethy  and  moderation,  355. 
Absorption,  from  stomach,  17. 

influence  of  exercise  upon,  235. 

absorptive  power  of  the  skin, 
276. 
Acne,  its  prevention  and  cnre,  289. 
Adenoids,  due  to  mouth  breathin  f;', 

178. 
Adjustment,  the  po-\ver  of,  xvi. 
Aerated  waters  as  beverages,  99. 
.Esthetic  objection   to  flesh  food, 
26. 

division  of  Ling's  System,  243. 
Age  and  its  relation  to  exercise,  133. 
Air,  Law  v.  Chapter  vi.,  184. 

adult     requirement    of    fresh 
air,  205. 

air-bath,  277. 

change  of  air,  211. 

complemental  air,  187. 

disease  in  relation  to,  200. 

impure,  and  sleep,  146,  151. 

inspired,  and  expired,  194. 

night  air,  206. 

residual  air,  186. 

supplemental  air,  186. 

the     sovereign     disinfectant, 
196. 

tidal  air,  187. 

ventilation  and  air,  199. 
Alcohol,  abuse  of,  always  harmful, 
106. 

and  assurance,  103. 

as  a  beverage,  99. 

action  on  the  blood,  101. 

as  a  digestive  agency,  101. 

28  431 


Alcohol  as  a  drug,  100. 

effect  of,  on  work,  102,  103. 
effect  of,  on  body  temperature, 

101. 
effect  of,  on  brain  and  will, 

104. 
as  a  food,  102. 
in  health,  100. 
and  heredity,  105. 
as  an  irritant,  100. 
and  insanity,  105. 
as  a  medicine,  104. 
in  sleeplessness,  156. 
not      a     stimulant,      but      a 
narcotic,  104. 
Ambidexterity,  238. 
Anabolism      or      assimilation,      a 
building-up     process,     113, 
312. 
Anatomical  argument  against  flesh- 
eating  considered,  26. 
Anatomy  of  the  ear,  174. 
"Anxious  -  mindedness  "       versus 

worry,  382. 
Appendix  (vermiform),  position  of, 

8,  69. 
"Appetite"    juice,     in    digestion, 

14. 
Appetites,  tyrannous,  352. 
Aqueous  chamber,  the,  166. 
Army  standard  lowered,  221. 
Arnott's  valve  ventilator,  206. 
Artificial  ear  drums,  175. 
Association  of  ideas,  138,  234,  372. 
Assurance  (life)  and  alcohol,  101. 
and  athletic  risks,  247. 
and  breathing  capacity,  188. 


432 


INDEX 


Asthma  and  foul  air,  196. 

cured  by  excitement,  389. 
Astigmatism,  168. 

its  cure,  170. 

the  chief  cause  of  headaches, 
169. 
Athletes'  diet  during  Chittenden's 

famous  experiment,  359. 
Athletic  nation,  are  we  an  ?  215. 
Athleticism  and  its  errors,  246. 
Atmosphere  of  cities,  the,  198. 
Attitude  in  sleep,  153. 
Atwater    (Professor)    and   dietetic 

research,  356. 
Auricles  of  the  heart,  315. 
Auto-intoxication,  theory  of,  46. 

objection  to  theory  of,  123. 
Auto-suggestion,  398. 

Backache  and  the  kidneys,  86. 

osteopathy  as  a  treatment  for, 
256. 
Backbone,  the  bent,  224. 
Bacteria,    saccharolytic    and    pro- 
teolytic, 45. 
Balance  of  the  body,  the,  1. 
Baldness,  its  prevention  and  cure, 

328. 
Basal  ganglia  of  the  brain,  373. 
Bath,  air  bath,  277. 

cold  bath  a  blunder,  278. 

combination,  281. 

hot,  278,  280. 

internal,  229. 

Japanese,  281. 

medicated,  284. 

Russian  (vapour),  275. 

sea,  283. 

Turkish,  275,  278,  283. 
Bathing  and  meal-times,  284, 
Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  36. 

its  mode  of  feeding,  37. 

number  of  meals  per  day  in, 
67. 
BeJclothing,    should    not    be    too 

heavy,  207,  341. 
Bedroom,  the  ideal,  151. 

temperature  of,  152,  206. 
Beef-juice,  how  to  prepare,  52. 
Beef  tea,  the  truth  about,  51. 

does  it  contain  an  antitoxin 
against  fatigue?  52. 


Belts  versus  braces  for  men,  331. 
Beri-beri  and  diet,  369. 
Beverages  to  imitate  coffee,  etc.,  99. 
Bile  and  bad  temper,  380. 

and  its  function,  18. 
Biliousness  audits  causation,  167. 
Bill  of  fare,  the  world's,  20, 
Blackheads  and    their  cure,   288, 

289. 
Blood  and  its  composition,  314. 

the  clotting  of,  315. 

comparison     to     a     banking 
accoimt,  112. 

deep  breathing,  effect  on,  188. 

efiect  of  exercise  on,  234. 

impure,  315. 

supply  of  the  brain,  382. 
Blood  poisoning  from  over-exercise, 

248. 
Blood  pressure  and  exercise,  235, 
"Blues,"  cure  of  the,  400. 
Blushing,    and   its    cure   by  deep 
breathing,  194. 

due  to  lack  of  self-control,  292. 

its  prevention  and  cm-e,  291. 
Body,  the  unresting.  111. 

the  growth  of  the,  180. 
Boiling  of  meat,  50. 
Bones  and  their  composition,  222. 

animal  matter  of,  222. 

mineral  matter  of,  222. 

of  the  ear,  275. 
Bonesetting  (scientific),  256. 
Books  for  school  children,  173. 
Boots  and  shoes,  336. 
Bowels,  effects  of  exercise  on,  237. 

opened  at  will,  387. 
Boyle's  valve  ventilator,  206. 
Braces  versus  belts,  331. 
Bracing  places  for  holidays,  181. 
Brain,  the,  and  its  structure,  137. 

blood  supply  of,  382. 

connection  with  the  muscles, 
233. 

fatigue  and  the,  159. 

functions  of  the,  139,  371. 

grey  matter  of  the,  137. 
Bread,  white  or  brown,  54. 

how  to  bake,  55. 

pills  of,  as  purgatives,  390. 
Breakfast,  no-breakfast  plan,  67. 

desirable  food  for,  71. 


INDEX 


433 


Breathing  apparatus,  the,  185. 

deep,  187, 

and  corsets,  193. 

exercise,  197. 

its  relation  to  singing,  191, 
Blight's  disease,  237, 
Broca's    convolution    and    speech, 

387. 
Bromidrosis  (foul  sweating),    275, 

334. 
Bronchial  tubes,  the,  186. 
Bunion,  cause  and  cure  of,  338. 
Butter,  43. 

milk,  44. 

Cafe-au-lait    and    its    preparation, 

97. 
Caffeine,  in  tea,  90. 
craving  for,  95, 
Calisthenics  for  children,  243. 
Callosities  and  corns  and  their  cure, 

339. 
Calories  and  their  significance,  28, 

30. 
Calorimeter  and  its  use,  29,  117. 
Cancer,   not    due    to    any  special 

diet,  24. 
Carbohydrates,  B. 

amount  required,  35. 
diet  of  pure,  121. 
Carbonic  acid,  194,  199,  200,  201. 
test  for,  in  air,  208. 
the  index  of  impurity  in  air, 

204. 
Carbonic  oxide,  a  deadly  gas,  201. 
Caries  of  the  teeth,  297. 
Carnivorous  animals  and  their  diet, 

119. 
Cartridges   compared    to   muscles, 

232. 
Catching  cold,  342. 
Cell,  the  secret  of  the,  113. 
Cells  in  the  brain,  137. 
Cellular  underclothing,  321. 
Cellulose,  indigestible  starch,  4. 
Cereals,  good  and  bad,  63. 

undesirable,  72. 
Cerebellum,  the,  and  its  functions, 

137,  139. 
Cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  the, 

137. 
Chairs,  a  word  on,  240. 


Chairs    and    their    effect    on    de- 
formity, 240. 
Change  of  air,  211. 
Chapped  hands  and  their  preven- 
tion, 294. 
Cheerfulness,  Law  x.  Chapter  xi., 
370. 
its  cause,  379. 
its  value,  391. 
Cheese  and  iis  composition,  42. 
Chemical  elements,  body  composed 

of,  1. 
Chemistry  of  fatigue,  the,  158. 
Chest  expansion  and  life  assurance, 

188. 
Chilblains    and    their    treatment, 

340. 
Children's  clothing,  324. 
Chittenden,  Professor,   10,  34,  36, 
120. 
and   his    famous   experiment, 

356. 
his   own  diet  during  the  ex- 
periment, 358. 
on  his  critics,  368. 
Chocolate  and  cocoa,  99. 
Choroid  membrane,  the.  166. 
Christian  Science,  400. 
Chromatic  granules  and  exhaustion, 

138. 
Church,  hypnotism  induced  in,  398. 
Cigarette  maker's  cramp,  247. 
Cigarette  smoking,  evils  of,  108. 
Circulation  and  exercise,  the,  234. 
City  atmosphere,  character  of,  199. 
Clarke,  Sir  Andrew,  story  by,  6. 

on  chewing,  11. 
Cleanliness,  Lawvii.  Chapter  Vlii,, 
269, 
demands  hot  water,  280, 
Climate  and  its  effects,  208. 
cold,  209. 
hot,  208. 
humid,  208. 
mountain,  209. 
seaside,  210. 
Climbing  and  output  of  energy,  131, 

and  deep  breathing,  197. 
Clothing  and  its  fimction,  318. 
best  material  for,  319. 
children's,  324. 
for  the  thin,  139. 


434 


INDEX 


Clothing,  infants',  323. 
men's,  327. 
unnecessary,  318. 
women's,  324. 
Clotting  of  blood,  315. 
Coal  and  combustion,  200. 
Cocoa  and  its  composition,  97. 

how  to  prepare,  for  drinking, 
98. 
Coffee  and  its  composition,  94. 
evil  effects  of,  96. 
how  to  prepare,  for  drinking, 
97. 
Cold-blooded  animals,  273,  311. 
bath  a  stimulant,  279. 
climates,  209. 
cream,  280. 
feet,  335. 
Cold  in  the  head,  177,  304,  342. 
and  smoking,  343. 
and  alcohol,  343. 
Cold  water  stimulates  the  gastric 

juice,  83. 
Collars  for  men,  332. 
Colon,  position  and  function  of,  7. 
Comedo  extractor,  for  blackheads, 

289. 
Complemental  air,  187. 
Complexion  and  its  secrets,  284. 
Compositor's  cramp,  247. 
Compulsory  military  service,  260. 
Concentration     of    the    mind    in 

physical  culture,  243. 
Conduction  of  heat  from  the  body, 

318. 
Confidence  and  the  cure  of  disease, 

390. 
Consciousness   and  its   collapse  in 
sleep,  142. 
the  field  of,  374. 
Constipation,  and  diet  for  its  cure, 
76. 
and  exercise,  228. 
Consumption  and  its  cure,  190. 
Consumption  in  bakers,  202. 
in  carpenters,  202. 
in  coal  miners,  202. 
in  cutlers,  203. 
in  file-cutters,  203. 
in  fishermen,  202. 
in  grinders,  203. 
in  masons,  202. 


Consumption  in  plumbers,  202. 

in  silver- workers,  203. 

and  window  space,  207. 
Contractility  of  muscles,  227. 
"  Contractured  "  muscles,  253. 
Cornaro  and  longevity,  346. 
Cornea,  the  position  of,  166. 
Corns  and  their  cure,  339. 

and  callosities,  270. 
Corpulence  and  its  cure,  127. 
Corpuscles,   red  and  white  blood, 

314. 
Corsets  and  breathing,  193. 

for  women,  defence  of,  325. 
Costal  breathing,  lower,  193. 
Cotton    garments    as    underwear, 

319. 
Cramp  in  various  occupations,  247. 
Craving  for  tea,  coffee,  and  other 

drugs,  95. 
Cream  and  its  composition,  42. 
Criminal  suggestions,  398. 
Orispi  and  longevity,  346. 
Croquet  knee,  248. 
Curdled  milk,  45. 

its  value,  46. 

its  dangers,  47. 

how  to  prepare,  47. 
Cure  by  suggestion,  397. 
Cutlers  and  consumption,  203. 
Cycling,  244. 
Cyrus  and  moderation,  355. 

Dandruff,  cause  of,  321. 

its  treatment,  329. 
Darwin  on  music  and  poetry,  354. 
Deaths  in  childhood,  218. 
Deep  breathing,  187. 

its  relation  to  singing,  191. 
Defects  of  eggs,  48. 
Deformity    remedied    by  exercise, 
237. 

and  school  seats,  238. 

and  domestic  chairs,  240. 
Dentine,  295. 

Dentist,  the  indispensable,  299. 
Depression    due    to    poor    blood 

supply,  379. 
Dermis,  or  true  skin,  270,  271. 
Desks  in  schoolrooms,  173. 
Dextrin,  or  soluble  starch,  4,  15.' 
Diabetes,  cause  of,  122, 


INDEX 


435 


Diaphragm,  the  position  of,  185. 
Diarrhoea  induced  by  fear,  381. 
Diet,  influences  on,  5. 
Banting,  128. 
everyday  errors  of,  168. 
for  improving  the  complexion, 

287. 
idiosyncrasies  in,  64. 
in  excessive  thinness,  129. 
Salisbury,  127. 
specimen,  33. 

Voit  and  Atn'ater's  scale,  356. 
Difference    between    inspired    and 

expired  air,  194. 
Digestion,  the  organs  of,  6. 

retarded  by  alcohol,  101. 
Dinner  and  its  courses,  73. 
Dirt,  matter  in  the  wrong  place, 

269. 
Disease  and  health  contrasted,  xvi. 
Disinfectant,  the  sovereign,  196. 
Dislocation    (partial)   or    subluxa- 
tions, 252. 
Dissolution,  the  law  of,  105,  143. 
Distillation  of  water,  88. 
Dress  League,  Hygienic,  325. 
Drink,  Law  ii.  Cha^jter  m.,  80. 

in  thinness,  129. 
Drugs  in  sleeplessness,  156. 
Drum  of  the  ear,  175. 

artificial,  175. 
Drunkenness  cured   by   emotional 

excitement,  390. 
Dualists  or  vitalists,  374. 
Dumb-bells  and  their  use,  241. 
Duration  of  holidays,  179. 
Dust  in  dwelling-houses,  203. 

-inhaling  occupations  and  con- 
sumption, 202. 
the  ubiquitous  enemy,  269. 
Dyspepsia,  produced  by  too  much 
thinking     about     stomach, 
377. 
and  suitable  diet,  75. 
wrong  posture  at  table,  241. 

Ear,  the,  and  its  troubles,  174,  307. 
Earache  and  its  cure,  178. 
Ear  drums,  artificial,  175. 
Edison  and  moderation,  355. 
Educational  division  of  the  Ling 
System,  242. 


Effective  exercise,  229. 
Effects  of  exercise — 
on  absorption,  235. 
on  the  bowels,  237. 
on  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 

234. 
on  deformity,  238. 
on  digestion,  235. 
on  excessive  thinness,  238. 
on  excretion,  235. 
on  the  kidneys,  236. 
on  the  liver,  237. 
on  the  lungs,  236. 
on  the  muscular  system,  231. 
on  the  nervous  system,  233. 
on  obesity,  237. 
on  secretion,  235. 
on  the  skin,  236. 
Eggs  and  their  composition,  48. 
agreeable  methods  of  prepar- 
ing, 49. 
ill  effects  of,  64. 
"Ego,"  the,  374, 
Elasticity  of  muscle,  227. 
Ellison's  conical  brick  ventilator, 

206. 
Emmanuelism,    the     new    mental 

treatment,  400. 
Emotion    intensified     by    its     ex- 
pression, 400. 
Emotions  and  their  physical  efifects, 
378. 
and  the  basal  ganglia,  378. 
and  the  muscular  system,  379. 
and  the  sympiathetic  nervous 
system,  378. 
Emphysema  from  over-distension  of 

the  lungs,  191. 
Enamel  of  the  teeth,  295. 
Enemy,     the     ubiquitous    (dust), 

269. 
Energy  and  its  waste,  161. 

(potential)  of  the  body,  246. 
Engine,  the  physical,  115. 
Enterokinase,     "the    ferment    of 

ferments,"  18. 
Epidermis,   the,  its  structure   and 

function,  270,  271. 
Ecj^uilibrium  in  the  body,  113. 
Erepsin,  an  intestinal  ferment,  18. 
Ergoaraph    for     measuring    work, 
"  the,  159. 


43^ 


INDEX 


Ergotism  from  eating  rye,  24. 
Errors  of  athleticism,  246. 

of  refraction,  167. 
Eustachian  tube,  the,  position  of. 

176, 
Excessive  exercise,  246. 
Excretion  and  exercise,  235. 
Excretory   function    of   the    skin, 

273. 
Exercise,  Lawvi.  Chapter  vii.,  214. 
a  daily  necessity,  230. 
amount  required  daily,  229. 
business  man's  requirement  of, 

259. 
and  diet,  365. 
for  adults,  244. 
for  children,  244. 
for  the  excessively  thin,  129. 
for  indolent  people,  243. 
for  neurotic  people,  243. 
for  weak  people,  243. 
for  youths,  244. 
in  the  open  air   for   pastime, 

132. 
in  the  open  air  for  sleep,  149. 
its    effects    on    the    muscular 

system,  231. 
of  muscles  increases  output  of 
energy   130. 
Exercises,  breathing,  197. 
Exhausting     occupations     shorten 

life,  248. 
Exhaustion  and  "chromatic  gran- 
ules," 138. 
Expectation  producing  sleep,  377. 
rendering  purgative  inert,  377. 
rousing  from  sleep,  377. 
Experiment     by     Chittenden     on 
necessary  amount  of  protein, 
356. 
Expired  and  insi>ired  air,  194. 
"Expression     deepens     emotion," 

400. 
Extensor  muscles,  226. 
Eye  and  cleanliness,  the,  305. 
and  its  formation,  the,  165. 
dropper,  use  of  the,  306. 
Eyelids,  irritation  of,  305. 
Eyestrain  and  its  cure,  169 

Face  washing,  284. 
strapping,  286. 


Face  steaming,  286. 
Factory  workers'   health   as   com- 
pared   with    that    of   agi'i- 
cultural  labourers,  221, 
Faddist,  a,  definition  of,  246, 
Fanatic,  a,  245. 
Fat  is  "rust,"  230. 
Fatigue  and  sleep,  146. 

and  the  brain,  159. 

and  rest,  157. 

and  physical  culture,  148. 

chemical  changes  in  muscles 
during,  158. 

due  to  acid  waste  matters,  157. 
Fatigue-sparing  forms  of  exercise, 

250. 
Fats  and  their  functions,  3. 

amount  required  as  food,  35. 

diet  of  pure  fat,  121. 
Fear,  the  phenomena  of,  380. 

and  toothache,  388. 

capable     of     causing     many 
diseases,  381. 

checks  the  secretions,  379. 
Feet,  how  to  harden,  334. 

cold,  335. 
Fevers  and  fear,  381, 
Fidgetiness,  and  its  evil  effects  on 

the  nervous  system,  162. 
Fifteen  morning  exercises,  262. 
File-cutters  and  consumption,  203. 
Finger-prints,  the  anatomy  of,  271. 
Fitting  of  boots  and  shoes,  337. 
Flat-foot  and  its  causation,  338. 
Flesh  diet,  objection  to,  23. 

life  impossible  on  pure,  118. 
Flesh,  how  to  put  on,  129. 
Fletcher,     Horace,     and     effective 

mastication,  10, 
Flexor  muscles,  226. 
Flour  and  its  composition,  55. 

as  a  poison,  65. 
Food  (General),  Law  i.  Chapter  i., 
1. 

(Special),  Law  i.  Chapter  ii., 
40. 
Food,  definition  of,  1. 

analysis  of  day's,  74. 

body-building     and     energy- 
producing,  117. 

combinations,  122. 

dissolution  of,  8, 


INDEX 


437 


Food,  doubtful  kinds  of,  62. 

how  to  estimate  quantity  of, 
required,  27,  28,  29. 

perfect  foods,  40. 

undesirable  mixtures  of,  70. 
Foot  powders  and  tbeir  use,  335. 
Foster's  diet.  Sir  Michael,  357. 
Freckles,  271. 

and  their  treatment,  289. 
Friction  air-bath,  277. 

of  skin  by  horsehair  gloves,  277. 
Fruits  and  their  properties,  57. 

bad  effects  of,  63. 

for  thin  people,  129. 

watery  content  of,  82. 
Fuel,  varieties  of,  117. 
Functions  of  the  brain,  139. 
Fungi,  as  food,  58. 

Games  for  children,  244. 

useful,    but    not    a    type    of 
physical  culture,  216. 
Ganglia  (basal)  of  the  braiu,  371, 
373. 

and  emotion,  378. 

of  the  sympathetic,  140. 
Garments  must  be  loose,  319. 
Gases,  diffusion  of,  203. 
Gastric  juice  and  its  action,  14. 
Gin-drinker's  liver,  101. 
Gloves,  333. 

Glycerine  and  the  skin,  289. 
Glycosuria  or  diabetes,  production 

of,  122. 
Goitre  and  distilled  water,  88. 
Golf,  the  value  of,  as  a  recreative 

exercise,  244,  250. 
Golfers'  intoes,  248. 
Gospel  of  relaxation,  402. 
Gout  cured  by  fear,  389. 
Grey  matter  of  the  brain,  138. 
Grinders  and  consumption,  203. 
"Growing  plains"  in  children,  324. 
Growth  of  brain  and  muscle,  234. 
Guilt  and  secretion  of  saliva,  379. 
Gymnasium  and  physical  develop- 
ment, 241. 

and  government,  242. 

Habit,  a  second  nature,  347. 

and  happiness,  350. 
Habits,  bad,  352. 


Habits,    good,    and   how   to   learn 

them,  .353. 
Hair  and  its  cleansing,  293, 
Hammer  toe  and  its  causation,  338. 
Hand  attention,  293. 
Handkerchief  refoim,  302. 
Handkerchiefs,  paper,  302, 
Hands,  chapped,  294. 
"  Hang-nails  "  and  their  cause,  293. 
Happiness  and  habit,  350. 

how  to  attain,  392. 
Hardening  the  feet,  334. 
"Hardening"  and  its  fallacy,  322, 

324. 
Hats  for  men,  327. 
Headaches  and  astigmatism,  159. 
Health  Clubs,  393. 
definition  of,  xv. 
and  alcohol,  100. 
and  disease  conti-asted,  xvi. 
the  essence  of,  130. 
the  first  condition  of  good,  132. 
improvement     and     physical 
culture,  243. 
Heart,  the,  a  pump,  315. 

action  of  the,  stopped  at  will, 
387. 
Heat  and  its  production,  316. 
and  its  loss,  317. 
manufacture,  311,  313,  316. 
regulating     function     of    tlie 

skin,  275. 
of    the    bodv    and    muscular 
action,  233'. 
Heredity  and  alcohol,  105. 
Hiccough  and  deep  breathing,  194. 
High-heeled    boots,    ill    effects   of 

wearing,  337. 
Hinckes- Bird's  ventilators,  205. 
Holiday  resorts,  best  pjlacesfor,  211, 
Holidays,     the     best    method     of 

taking,  179. 
Holiness  (wholeness)  is  health,  269. 
Home  exercises  and  their  use,  241. 
Honey    and  milk,    the    only    two 

foods  formed  as  such,  20. 
Horseback  exercise,  and  its  value, 

260. 
Horsehair  gloves  for  skin  friction, 

277, 
Hot  or  cold  water  ?  83, 
water  drinking,  84, 


438 


INDEX 


Hot  climates,  20S. 

Human     engine      economical      in 

working,  116, 
Humanitarianism  as  an  argument 

against  liesli-eating,  25. 
Humid  climates,  209. 
Hydrophobia  and  fear,  381. 

and  will,  390. 
Hygienic  Dress  League,  325. 
Hypermetropia    (longsightedness), 

explanation  of,  163. 
and  its  cure,  169. 
Hypnotics  in  insomnia,  156. 
Hypnotism,  explanation  of,  396. 
Hypochondria  and  worry,  385. 
Hysteria  and  worry,  385. 

"Ideas,  association  of,"  138. 
Idiosyncrasy  in  diet,  64. 
Idleness  demoralises,  132. 
Imagination  as  a  purgative,  389. 
Index  of  impurity  in  air,  204. 
Indian  test  for  guilty  people,  379. 
Indigestion  and  wrong  posture  at 

table,  241. 
Indolent  people  and  exercise,  243. 
Infantile  death-rate,  218. 
Infants'  clothing,  323. 
Influence  of  the  mind  on  the  body, 

376. 
Ingrowing  toe  nail,  294. 

and  its  treatment,  338. 
Inland  place  for  holidaj^  181. 
"  Inner  circle,"  the,  195. 
Insanity  and  alcohol,  105. 
Insensible  perspiration,  274. 
Insomnia  caused  by  tea  and  coffee 
drinking,  97. 

how  to  cure,  150,  153. 
Inspired  air  and  expired  air,  194. 
Internal  respiration,  195,  232. 
Intestine,  large,  position  of,  7. 

small,  position  of,  7,  18. 
Intoxicants  and  their  use,  99. 
Involuntary  muscles,  226,  229. 
Iris,  the,  166. 

"Irritable  weakness"    in    neuras- 
thenia, 164,  227. 

Jackets,  the  use  of,  330. 
Japanese  warship  diet,  365. 
Joints  and  their  structure,  226. 


Katabolism  or  dissimilation,  a 
breaking-down  process,  113, 
312. 

Keen's  method  of  ventilation,  205. 

Kephyr  and  its  preparation,  44. 

Kidneys,  the,  and  their  action,  85. 
effect  of  exercise  on,  236. 

Kinds  of  bad  sleepers,  149. 

Knickerbockers  versus  trousers,  331. 

Koumiss  and  its  composition,  44. 

Labour,  its  own  reward,  134, 
Lactic  acid,  effect  of,  on  sleep,  146. 
Lacto-bacilline  treatment,  the,  44. 
Lathyrism  from  eating  pulse  foods, 

24. 
Law  I.  Food  (General),  1 ;  (Special), 
40. 
II.  Drink,  80. 

III.  Work,  111. 

IV.  Rest,  136. 
V.  Air,  184. 

VI.  Exercise,  214". 
VII.  Cleanliness,  269. 
VIII.  Protection,  311. 
IX.  Moderation,  346. 
X.  Cheerfulness,  370. 
Law  of  dissolution,  105,  143. 

of  exhaustion,  162. 
Laws  of  health  defined,  xviii. 
Laziness,   the  cause   of  failure   in 

life,  132. 
Lens,  the  crystalline,  166. 
"  Lesions  "  (osteopathic),  252. 
composite,  253. 
ligamentous,  253. 
muscular,  252. 
osseous,  252. 
rectification  of,  254. 
visceral,  253. 
Life,  definition  of,  xiv. 
Ligamentous  "lesions,"  253. 
Lighting     (artificial)     in     school- 
rooms, 174. 
Limb  bones,  upper  and  lower,  225. 
Lime  in  food  and  water,  223. 
Limitations   of  exercise   for   each, 

245. 
Linen  garments,  319. 

underclothing,  320. 
Ling   System   of  physical  culture, 
the,  242. 


INDEX 


439 


Liver,  the,  17. 

gin  drinker's,  107. 

effect  of  exercise  on,  237. 
Lockjaw  induced  by  will   power, 

387. 
Longevity,  and  its  secret,  346. 

and  occupation,  248. 

and  overweight,  247. 
Longsightedness,  168. 
Lotion  for  acne,  291. 

for  chapped  hands,  294. 

for  irritated  eyelids,  305. 

for  nasal  catarrh,  304. 

for  red  nose,  291. 

for  sunburn,  288. 
Lumbago    from  lack    of  exercise, 

230. 
Lungs,  the,  185. 

effect  of  exercise  on,  236. 

tuberculosis  of,  189. 

vital  capacity  of,  186. 

Machine,  the  human,  222. 
M'Kinnell's  ventilator,  206. 
Maize,  a  fat-containing  food,  3. 
Malt    liquors,    their    composition, 
106. 

and  effect  on  the  body,  107. 
Manicure  set  for  hands  and  nails, 

294. 
Manufacture  of  heat,  313. 
Married  people  and  separate  beds, 

152. 
Massage,  251. 

explanation    of    its    benefits, 
251. 

in  sleeplessness,  153. 

method  of  performing,  251, 

of  the  colon,  261. 
Mastication,  efficient,  10. 

effects  of  insufficient,  12. 

to  be  made  a  habit,  349. 
Materialists  or  monists,  374. 
Mattresses  and  health,  152. 
Meals,  progi'amme  of,  65. 

one-meal-a-day  system,  66, 

two-meals-a-day  system,  66, 

best  system  of,  68. 
Meal-time  and  bathing,  284. 
Meat,  the  cooked  form  of,  49. 

changes  produced  by  cooking, 
49. 


Meat,  cold_,  51. 

digestibility  of,  50. 
Meat-eating  and  tea-drinking  com- 
pared, 89. 
Medical  division  of  the  Ling  System, 

243. 
Medicated  soaps,  practically  useless, 

283. 
Medicine,  the  true  aim  of,  xv. 
Medulla  oblongata  and  its  functions, 

139. 
Men's  clothing,  327. 
Mental  anxiety  and  worry,  386. 

concentration  on  physical  cul- 
ture, 243. 

therapeutics,  388. 
Metabolism,  definition  of,  112,  311. 
Metchuikoff,  19. 

and  "curdled  milk,"  45,  314. 
Military  division  of  Ling's  System, 
243. 

service,  compulsory,  260. 
Milk,  20. 

a  constipating  food,  41, 

a  perfect  food,  118. 

a  staying  food,  40. 

a  typical  natural  food,  40. 

composition  of  cow's,  41. 

"curdled,"  45. 

cure  for  obesity,  128. 

humanised,  44. 

mother's,  poisoned  by  passion, 
380. 

skim,  42. 

teeth,  295. 
Mind  and  body,  370. 

making  up  the,  374. 

not  a  secretion  of  the  brain, 
371. 

the  unconscious,  375. 

healing,  392. 
Mineral  substances  as  food,  4,  58. 
Mirror  (revolving)  and  hypnotism, 

398. 
Moderation,  Law  ix.   Chapter  x,, 
346. 

and  Cyrus,  355. 

and  Edison,  355. 

and  Rabagliati,  362. 

and  Sydney  Smith,  355. 
Moist  skin,  cure  of,  288. 
Moltke  and  longevity,  346. 


440 


INDEX 


Monists  or  materialists,  374. 
Moral  nature,  the,  386. 

and  alcohol,  104. 
Morning  exercises,  260, 
Mother's  milk  poisoned  by  violent 

passion,  380. 
Motoring  as  a  recreative  exercise, 
250. 

value  of,  260. 
Mountain  climates,  209. 
Mouth  washes,  298. 

breathing,  195. 

breathing,  and  its  evils,  303. 
"Muscle-bound"     from    excessive 

exercise,  220. 
Muscle-building  not  the  object  of 

physical  culture,  241. 
Muscles  "contractured,"  353. 
Muscles,  voluntary  and  involuntary, 
226. 

and  nervous  system,  233, 

breathing  of,  229. 

functions  of,  227. 

like  cartridge,  233. 

number  of,  227. 

structure  of,  231. 

unemployed,  227. 
Muscular  "lesions,"  252. 

system,  the  needs  of,  231. 

system  and  the   heat   of   the 
body,  233. 

system,  hov/  to  relax  the,  250, 
MiLsic  in  fatigue,  159,  179. 
ilutton  fat,  3. 

as  a  dietetic  agency,  for  con- 
sumption, 121, 
Myopia  (shortsightedness),  168. 

and  its  cure,  170. 
Myosin  in  muscles,  231. 

Nails  and  their  care,  293. 

ingrowing  toe,  294. 
Narcotic  effect  of  alcohol,  104. 
Nasal  catarrh  and  salt,  59. 

and  its  cause,  200,  342. 

more  common  in  smokers,  109, 
343' 

prevention  and  cure,  304. 
Natural  ventilation,  203. 
Nature,  the  laws  of,  xvii. 

cannot  be  cheated,  354, 
Nerves,  the,  137. 


Nerves,  the,    and    their  function, 
140. 

motor,  376. 

sensory,  376. 

trophic,  376. 

vasomotor,  376. 
Nervous  system  and  exercise,  233. 

cerebro-spinal,  137. 

like  an  accumulator,  1  GO. 

sympathetic,  140. 

structure  of,  233. 
Nervous  systems,  the  two,  136. 

debility  and  worry,  385. 
Nervous  temperament,  the,  159. 

the,  and  exercise,  243. 
Neuralgia  cured  by  fear,  338. 

by  prescription,  388. 
Neurasthenia     {nervous    debility), 
163. 

its  mental  origin,  164, 
Night  air  not  dangerous,  206. 
Nitrogen  in  the  body,  3. 
Noises  of  civilisation,  the,  176. 

in  the  head,  177. 
Nose  and  its  functions,  300. 

and  its  structure,  301. 

breathing,  195,  303. 

(red),  291. 
Nutrition,  the  needs  of,  27,  356. 
Nuts  and  their  composition,  58. 

sometimes  unsuitable  as  articles 
of  food,  63. 

Oatmeal  not  always  desirable  as  a 
food,  72. 

and  the  complexion,  286. 
Obesity  and  water-drinking,  S8. 

and  its  cure  by  exercise,  237. 

Banting  system  for  cure  of,  128. 

due  to   eating    too    much   or 
exercising  too  little,  125. 

factors  favouring,  126. 

its  causation,  124. 

its  cure,  127. 

milk  cure  of,  128. 

Salisbury  diet  for,  127. 
Occupation  and  fatigue,  chance  of, 
162. 

neuroses,  247. 
(Esophagus,  position  of,  7. 
Oil  and  combustion,  201. 
Ointment  for  acne,  290, 


INDEX 


441 


Ointment  for  red  nose,  291. 

Old  age  and  retirement,  133. 

Open  bedroom  ^Tindow  devices,  207, 
211. 

Ophthalmic    surgeons    versus    op- 
ticians, 170. 

Optimism  always  pays,  393. 

Osseous   "lesions"  in  osteopathy, 
252. 

Osteopathy  and  its  practice,  252. 
and  Swedish  movements,  256. 
in  America,  257. 
and  "lesions"  in,  252. 

Overcoats  and  their  use,  333. 

Overdistension  of  the  lungs,  191. 

Over-eating  in  the  average  man, 
366. 

Over-exercise  and  its  evil  effects, 
245. 

Over-v/eight  and  longevity,  247. 

Oxygen    and    its     effect    on    the 
muscles,  233. 
inhalation  in  disease  and  train- 
ing, 198. 

Pancreas,   the,  and  its  functions, 
17. 

Paper  handkerchiefs,    the   use   of, 
302. 

Paralysis    cured  by  thermometer, 
389. 

Pawlow  and  researches  on  digestion, 
14. 

Peptogens  and  their  uses,  in  diges- 
tion, 15. 

Peristaltic  action  of  the  bowels,  19. 

Perspiration  (sensible    and    insen- 
sible), 274. 

Phthisis  pulmonalis,  189. 

and  dust-inhaling  occupations, 

202. 
curability  of,  190. 

Physical    culture,    definition    and 
object  of,  217. 
the  Ling  System  of,  242. 

Physician,  the  gi-eatest,  184. 

Physique  of  factory  workers,  etc., 
221. 

Piano-player's  cramp,  247. 

Picking  the  ears,  the  evils  of,  174. 

Pigeon  breast,  remedial  treatment 
of,  303. 


Phagocytes  and  their  use,  314. 
Plan  for  morning  exercise,  261. 
Play  for  children,  244. 
Plexus  (solar),  249. 
Plexuses  of  symfjathetic,  140. 
Pointed-toed  boots  and  their  evil 

effects,  337. 
Pork  easily  digested,  50. 
Powders  (tooth),  297. 
Prevention  of  eye-strain,  172. 
Production  of  heat,  316. 
Protection,  Law  viii.  Chapter  ix., 

311. 
Protective    function   of   the    skin, 

273. 
Proteins,  2. 

amount  of,  required,  32. 
cannot  be  stored  in  the  body, 

123. 
contract  during  cooking,  53. 
digestion   of  vegetable,    func- 
tions of,  3. 
minimum       and       optimum, 

amounts  of,  363. 
the  indispensable,  31. 
Proximate  alimentary  principles,  2. 
Psychic  juice  in  digestion,  14. 
Ptyalin,  the  active  principle  of  the 

saliva,  8. 
Pupil  of  the  eye,  the,  160. 
Purgation  produced  by  bread  pills, 

390. 
Purins,  the  problem  of,  60. 
Purpose  of  the  book,  xv. 
Pyjamas,  341. 

Rabagliati    and   moderation,    Dr., 
362. 

Piadiation  of  heat  fi'om  the  body, 
317. 

"Eapport"  in  hypnotism,  397. 

Reaction  after  cold  bath,  279. 

Reading  in   bed   in   sleeplessness, 
154. 
at  meal-times  and  in  bed,  174. 

Recreation,  modes  of,  258. 
not  exercise,  217. 

Recruiting  revelations,  220. 

Rectifications  of  "  lesions"  by  osteo- 
pathy, 254. 

Rectum,  position  of,  8. 

Red  blood  corpuscles,  314. 


442 


INDEX 


Red  nose,  its  prevention  and  cure, 

291, 
Reflex    actions,     explanation     of, 

348, 
Refraction,  errors  of,  167. 
Regularity  of  meals  enjoined,  351. 
Relaxation,  the  art  of  rest,  249. 
Relaxing  in  sleeplessness,  154. 

exercises,  251. 
Rennet,  the  milk-curdling  ferment, 

48 
Repair  and  waste  of  tissues,  com- 
pared to  a  brick  wall,  114. 
Residual  air,  186. 

Respira  tion  and  vitiation  of  the  air, 
199. 
and  exercise,  236. 
of  the  muscles,  232,  229. 
of  the  skin,  273. 
the  function  of,  184. 
types  of,  192. 
Rest,  Law  iv.  Chapter  v.,  136. 
Retina,  the,  the  sensitive  plate  of 

the  eye,  166. 
Retirement  in  old  age,  a  blunder, 

133. 
Rheumatism,  230. 
Ribs,  "floating"  and  "true,"  225. 
Rice  test  for  guilt,  379. 
Rickets  and  its  causation,  223. 
and  "growing pains,"  325. 
Rider's  bone,  248. 
Roasting  meat,  50. 
Roots  and  green  foods,  55. 
Round  shoulders   and  their  cure, 

239, 
Rubber  heel  tips  on  shoes,  341. 
overshoes,  340. 

Safe  morning  bath,  281. 
Salisbury  diet,  127. 
Saliva  and  its  functions,  8. 

checked  by  fear,  379. 

secretion  of,  9. 
Salivary  glands,  6. 
Salt  (common)  in  nasal  catarrh .  344, 

59. 
Salts  as  food  substances,  4. 
School,  the  child  at,  172. 

buildings,  173. 

seats,  238. 
Schoolroom,  the  sins  of  the,  238. 


Sclerotic  coat  of  the  eye,  the,  166. 
Sea  bathing,  benefits  of,  explained. 

283, 
Seaside  climates,  210. 
Seats  for  children,  proper,  239. 
Sebaceous  glands,  272. 

acne  and,  272. 
Sebum  and  its  functions,  274. 
Secretion  and  exercise,  235. 
Secretions  checked  by  fear,  379. 
Self-control  and  suggestion,  400. 

in  the  nervous,  160. 
Self-hypnotisation   or  auto-sugges- 
tion, 398. 
Senses  of  smell,  sight,  etc.,  excited 

by  thought,  377. 
Sensible  corsets,  326. 
perspiration,  274. 
Sensory  nerves,  376, 
Sewer  air,  201. 

Sheringham  valve  ventilator,  206, 
Shirts  (white  and  woollen)  for  men, 

332. 
Shoes  and  boots,  336, 
Shortsightedness  (myopia),  168. 

and  its  cure,  170. 
Sigmoid  flexure,  position  of,  8. 
Silk  garments  and  their  advantages, 

319. 
Silver-workers    and    consumption, 

203. 
Singing  and  deep  breathing,  191. 
Skeleton  and  its  uses,  the,  223. 
Skin,  and  its  functions,  the,  273. 
absorptive,   functions  of  the, 

276. 
excretory  functions  of  the,  273. 
heat -regulating    functions     of 

the,  275. 
protective    functions    of    the, 

273. 
tactile  functions  of  the,  275. 
Skin  foods,  287. 
tonics,  287. 
Skin  and  its  structure,  the,  270. 

and  exercise,  the,  236, 
Sleep,  anaemia  of  the  brain  in,  146. 
amount  of,  required,  147. 
attitude  in,  153. 
causation  of,  145. 
first,  the  soundest,  144. 
produced  by  expectation,  377. 


INDEX 


443 


Sleep,  short,  sometimes  most  valu- 
able, 148. 

temperature   of  body   during, 
144. 

what  happens  in,  141. 
Sleepers,  bad,  149. 
Sleeping  at  will,  148. 

on  the  ground,  208. 
Sleeplessness  and  its  cure,  153. 
Slumber,  theories  of,  146, 
"Smell"  and  its  acuteness,  302. 
Smokers'  tooth  powder,  298. 
Smoking,  its  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages, 108. 
Sneezing  a  reflex  action,  348. 
Soap  and  its  use,  282. 
Soldiers'  diet  during  Chittenden's 

famous  experiment,  360. 
Soundest    sleep    in    the  first  two 

hours,  144. 
Sound  plan  for  sleeplessness,  a,  154. 
Soup  as  a  stimulant,  73. 
"  Specks  "  (floating)  before  the  eye, 

167. 
Spectacles  in  defective  vision,  170. 
Speech  centre  in  the  brain,  387. 
Spencer  (Herbert)  and  mind,  371. 
Spinal  column  in  childhood,  224. 

correct  shape    of,    important, 
225. 

muscles  attached  to,  226. 

cord,  the,  137. 

functions  of,  140. 
Sport,  worship  of,  215. 
Stage  fright  and  deep  breathing, 

194. 
Starches  and  sugars,  3,  4. 
Starvation,  effects  of,  118. 
Static  exercises,  248. 
Steaming  the  face,  286. 
Stew  meat,  how  to,  50. 
Stomach,  the,  7. 

the,  and  its  functions,  13. 

the,    catarrh    of,     caused    by 
alcohol,  101. 

the,  movement  of,  16. 

the,  "qualms"  of,  378. 
Stooping  and  its  cure,  239. 
Strain  relieved  by  deep  breathing, 

249. 
Strawberries,  effects  of,  on  body,  64. 
Strong  men  born,  not  made,  245. 


Subluxations,  252. 
Success  Clubs,  393. 
Sudoriferous  or  sweat  glands,  272, 

273. 
Sugar,  malt,  milk,  and  fruit,  4. 
Sugared   water   causing  vomiting, 

377. 
Sugars,  common,  54. 
Suggestion,  the  princiiDle  of,  394. 
and  the  cure  of  disease,  399. 
and  self-control,  400. 
Suggestions,  mental,  386,  394. 
Sulphurous  acid  in  air,  201. 
Summary,  Practical,  of — 
Chap.  I.  Law   i.,  Food(General),38. 
,,     II.    J,      I.,  Food  (Special), 7 7. 
,,   III.    ,,     II., Drink,  109, 
,,    IV.    „    III., "Work,  134. 
,,     V.    ,,    iv.,Eest,  181, 
,,    VI.    ,,     v.,  Air,  211. 
,,  VII.    ,,    VI., Exercise,  266. 
,,viii.    „  VII,, Cleanliness,  309. 
,,    IX.   „ VIII., Protection,  344. 
,,      X.    „    IX. ,  Moderation,  367. 
,,    XI.    ,,     x,,Cheerfulness,403. 
Sunburn  lotion,  288. 
Supper,  appropriate  food  for,  74. 
Supplemental  air,  186. 
Swallowing,  a  reflex  action,  348. 
Sweat,  274, 
(foul),  276. 

glands  and  exercise,  236, 
Sweating  of  blood,  275, 
Swedish  movement  and  osteopathy. 
256,  ^ 

Sydenham  on  thought  and  disease, 

377, 
Sympathetic  nervous  system,  the, 
140. 
nervous  functions  of,  140. 
nervous  system  and  emotion, 
378. 
Syringing  the  ear,  175,  307. 

Tactile    functions     of    the    skin, 

275. 
Talking  and  waste  of  energy,  162, 
Tannin  in  tea,  etc. ,  interferes  with 

digestion,  9. 
Tapioca  and  cassava  root  (poison), 

63, 
Tartar  on  teeth,  296. 


444 


INDEX 


Tea,   afternoon,   cause  of  obesity, 
125. 
amount  consumed  in  England, 

etc.,  89. 
and  its  effects    on  headache, 

61. 
bad  effects  of  drinking,  353. 
chemical  constituents  of,  90. 
good  and  evil  effects  of,  drink- 
ing, 92. 
how  to  drink,  89. 
how  to  infuse,  91. 
Japanese  and,  91. 
teetotallers  and,  93. 
Teeth  and  their  formation,  295. 
Teetotallers  and  tea,  93. 
Telegraphist's  cramp,  247. 
Telepathy,  393. 

Temperature  of  body  lowered   by 
alcohol,  101. 
of  air  in  natural  ventilation, 

204. 
of  hot  bath,  280. 
of  man  and  animals,  313. 
Tempers  (bad)  and  bile,  380. 
Ten  Commandments,  story  of,  xix. 
Tennis  elbow,  248. 
Tension  exercises,  258. 
Theatrical  paints  for  skin,  289. 
Theobromine  in  cocoa,  98. 
Thin,  the  excessively  thin,  129. 

exercise  for,  238. 
Thought  and  disease,  377. 

the  physical  effects  of,  376. 
Thoughts  are  forces,  393. 
Throat  or  pharynx,  6. 
Throat,  sore,  200. 
Tidal  air,  187. 
"Tinnitus  aurium,"  ringing  of  the 

ears,  177. 
Tobacco    and    its    moderate    use, 

107,  352. 
Tobin's  tube  for  ventilation,  206. 
Tonics  generally  useless,  114. 
Toothache  cured  by  fear,  388. 

bacillus,  296. 
Toothbrush  and  its  use,  296. 
Tooth  powders,  297. 
Townshend  (Colonel)  and  the  stop- 
page  of  the  heart's   action, 
387. 
Toxsemia  from  non-exercise,  248. 


Toxic    substances    like    tea,    and 

worry,  385. 
Toxins  of  fatigue,  158,  161. 
Trachea,  the,  or  windpipe,  185. 
Trade   processes  and  air  vitiation, 

.  202. 
Training  and   oxygen  inhalations, 

198. 
"Treatments"  (osteopathic),  255. 
Trousers  and  their  use,  331. 
Turkish  bath,  275,  283. 
Turpentine  for  acne,  290. 

Unconscious  mind,  the,  375. 
Underclothing,  woollen,  320. 

should  be  loosely  worn,  320. 
"Uric  Acid  "  in  the  body,  60. 

amount,     depends     on    nitro- 
genous food,  81. 
Uric  acid  and  tea-drinking,  93. 

Vegetable  virtues,  53. 
Vegetables,   how  they  differ  from 
animal  food,  53. 
properties  of  green,  57. 
Vegetarian  controversy,  21. 
Vegetarianism  and  the  teeth,  300, 
Ventilation  and  air,  199. 

object  of,  203. 
Ventilators,  205,  206. 
Ventricles  of  the  heart,  315. 
Vertebral  column,  223. 
correct  shape  of,  225. 
subluxations  of,  256. 
Violinist's  cramp,  247. 
Vis  medicatrix  natune,  tlie,  xvii, 

391. 
Visceral  "lesions,"  253. 
Vital  capacity,  186. 
Vital  Principle,  the,  371. 
Vitalists  or  dualists,  374. 
"Vitality,"  312,  374. 
Vitiation  of  air  by  combustion,  200. 
by  decaying  matter,  201. 
by  respiration,  199. 
by  trade  processes,  202. 
Vitreous  humour,  the,  of  the  eye, 

166. 
Voit  and   Atwater's  scale  of  diet, 

356,  357. 
Volition  and   its   physical   efl'ects, 
386. 


INDEX 


445 


Voluntary  muscles,  226. 
Vomiting     induced     by     sugared 
water,  377. 

Waistcoats  and  their  weak  points, 

331. 
"Walking  exercise    and   output  of 
energy,  130,  131,  180. 
and  deep  breathing,  197,  244, 
259. 
Warm-blooded  animals,  307. 
Washing  the  face,  284. 
Waste  and  repair  of  tissues  com- 
pared  to  the  renewal   of  a 
brick  wall,  114. 
Waste  of  energy  and  its  explana- 
tion, 161. 
Water,  the  best  solvent,  81. 
the  uses  of,  81. 
the  needful  allowance  of,  82. 
excessive  consumption  of,  82. 
hot  or  cold,  for  drinking,  83. 
not  absorbed  by  stomach,  83. 
obesity  and  di'inking  of,  88. 
stimulation  by  drinking,  89. 
three-fifths  of  the  body  is,  5. 
Wax  and  its  removal  from  the  ear, 

174,  307. 
Weakly  people  and  exercise,  244, 

245. 
"Weakness"  in  neurasthenia,  165. 
Weather  and  its  effects  on  sleep, 

149. 
Week-ends,  value  of,  181. 
Weight,  how  to  increase,  129. 
White  blood  corpuscles,  314. 
Whooping-cough  cured  by  fear,  389. 
Will  power,  386. 

influence  on  the  body,  387. 
and  the  peristaltic   action   of 
the  bowels,  387. 


Window  space  and  consumption, 

207. 
Windows  and  doors  are  ventilators, 

205. 
Wind-pipe,  the,  or  trachea,  185. 
Winds  in  ventilation,  the  function 

of,  204. 
Winking,  a  reflex  action,  348. 
Wisdom  teeth,  295. 
Women  and  old  age,  248,  249. 
Women's  clothing,  325. 
Wool  and  its  power  to  retain  air, 
320. 

its   power  of  absorption,  320, 
321. 

its  expense,  320. 

its  felting,  321. 

its  irritating  properties,  321. 
Woollen  underclothing,  320. 
Work,  Law  iii.  Chapter  iv.,  111. 

Carlyle  and,  134. 

does       not       cultivate       the 
physique,  219. 

external,  115. 

internal,  115. 

is  not  exercise,  228. 

the  gospel  of,  131. 
Worry  and  anxiety  contrasted,  382. 

and  its  causes,  385. 

and  its  cure,  383. 

explained  by  analogy,  383, 

is  excess  of  uncontrolled  atten- 
tion, 382. 
Wrinkles,  cure  for,  286. 
Writer's  cramp,  247. 

Yale  University  tests,  12. 

and  Mendel,  21  (foot  note). 

Chittenden's  great  experiment 
at,  356. 
Yoghourt,  or  "curdled  milk,"  45. 


Printed  by 
Morrison  &  Gibb  Limited 

Edinhurgh 


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